Despite the best efforts of the world’s conservationists, this shocking decline in species sadly shows no sign of slowing down. The habitat destruction and environmental pollution that have caused species to become endangered are extremely entrenched. It will require meaningful action at every level of society to reverse it.

However, despite this bleak outlook, there is always hope. By working together and making simple changes, mankind may slow or stop species loss and promote biodiversity. In this article, we share how to help endangered species with 16 ways anyone can make a meaningful contribution to protecting the world’s most threatened species.

What are endangered species?

Endangered species are groups of organisms that are at high risk of becoming extinct in the near future. The endangerment of a species may be global or in a particular region of the world. Conservationists and other groups with knowledge of the biology, habitat, and population numbers of potentially threatened species reach a consensus option on endangerment.

Who determines which species are endangered?

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is a Swiss-based international conservation organization comprising over 1,400 governmental and non-governmental organizations. The IUCN produces a Red List, with the assessed status of the world’s most vulnerable species. Charities and NGOs within the IUCN continuously monitor the following:

• Absolute species population numbers
• Habitat loss
• Rates of poaching
• The presence of invasive species

Along with specialist assessments, this data can be used to assess the conservation status of a particular species. Governments and organizations can use the conservation status of species to determine which species require enhanced protection. Remedial activities can be formalized with the creation of a Biodiversity Action Plan.

Governments have legislated to protect endangered species, forbidding hunting or interfering with their habitats. Conservation statuses can also guide other initiatives like captive breeding programs or the designation of reserves and national parks.

More than 50% of the world’s species face the risk of extinction

The IUCN Red List lists more than 3,079 animals and 2,655 endangered plant species. Species are classified by their class, with Near Threatened (NT) and Least Concern (LC) indicating the species with the healthiest populations and Vulnerable (VU) and critically endangered (CR) indicating the most endangered creatures.

Endangered species can also be described as rare or even locally extinct. Not all conservation status data is precise because the extinction of many species may have gone unnoticed for many years.

The paucity of data means some red list entries may be designated as ‘data deficient.’ This is where there is inadequate data and research available to establish the true status of the species.

Examples of vulnerable and critically endangered species include: 

• The Siberian tiger
• Kemp’s ridley sea turtle
• The Siamese crocodile
• The blue-throated macaw
• The brown spider monkey
• The American burying beetle
• The Mexican wolf

Some of these species have left more than 150 living creatures worldwide.

Why are endangered species important?

The rising number of endangered species indicates that whole ecosystems are becoming compromised and may be at risk of collapse. As the population numbers of a particular species fall, the critical interactions that species has with other organisms within its local habitat are reduced, throwing the entire ecosystem out of balance and permanently changing its makeup.

For example, the loss of an apex predator species may lead to the unwanted proliferation of prey species that cause environmental damage through overgrazing, burrowing, or other activities. This can threaten other species in the ecosystem that become pressured, like plants and trees.

Another problem with species endangerment is that the world risks losing medicinal plants that may have future benefits to man. Over a quarter of modern medicines are derived from rainforest plants, and discoveries will be threatened if we let rare plant species go extinct.

Also, there is the sadness of knowing that some of Earth’s beautiful and intriguing creatures could be lost to future generations. Once they are gone, they cannot be brought back. This excellent PBS documentary about the life of Broken Tail, a deceased Royal Bengal tiger in India, highlights the pressures faced by endangered species and their tragic loss:

What can we do to help endangered species?

It’s great to know that there is something everyone can do to help endangered species. This is primarily because species of every type are under threat worldwide. Many aspects of our lives drive continuing biodiversity loss.

Simple changes and efforts, however small, can positively impact this serious environmental issue. Here’s what we can do:

1. Get Informed

When you think about endangered species, the well-publicized plight of animals like tigers, pandas, and rhinos immediately springs to mind. However, according to the WWF, 0.1% of all species go extinct yearly. There are so many unidentified species worldwide that it is impossible to know how many organisms are currently threatened.

This is why learning more about species endangerment biodiversity and the local ecosystems that need to be protected is essential. Learning about wildlife sanctuaries and species in your local area can help you contribute time or money to preserving vulnerable species wherever you are.

2. Be vocal about endangered species

Anyone can be an advocate for endangered species by being vocal about the problem. Raise awareness of the biodiversity crisis in your community by:

• Signing petitions about local habitats that could be threatened by development
• Writing to your local political representative
• Organizing fundraisers for animal conservation charities
• Creating leaflets or flyers to distribute to neighbors, friends, and relatives

3. Support your nearest conservation-accredited zoo

Supporting zoos by visiting them is one of the best things you can do for animal conservation. Zoos are no longer damaging, constrained environments for animals. The conservation of endangered species with education about them is the core activity of a modern zoo. This makes them essential institutions to support to make a difference to threatened species.

Your entrance fees, donations, and memberships fund practical conservation, research, outreach, and advocacy for endangered species. They are expert conservationists who can effectively inform and communicate the need to protect the most vulnerable species on Earth.

Animal biologists in zoos research animal behavior to give their animals the best quality of life in captivity. Modern zoo facilities are often equipped to breed endangered species and may even become involved in rehabilitating them for release into the wild.

4. Volunteer at your local nature reserve or wildlife sanctuary

Many wildlife reserves are vital havens for threatened non-exotic species. You can help protect these creatures by contributing your time to the charities and organizations that manage nature reserves in your community. These reserves and sanctuaries are often havens for rare species like bats, deer, amphibians, and birds which would become extinct without conservation.

Volunteers at wildlife sanctuaries can make a difference through activities that include species surveying and mapping, grounds maintenance, and welcoming visitors. Without the efforts of volunteers, these important reserves allow people to discover and explore the natural world.

5. Make your yard a haven for pollinators

Endangered species come in all shapes and sizes, and it is often the smallest creatures that disappear from the environment fastest. The collapse in numbers of vital pollinator species like bees, butterflies, and moths is a recognized issue.

In recent years, over 20% of pollinator species have shown a strong decline, even threatening the pollination of essential crops. One of the ways in which you can help these endangered species is to encourage pollinators to thrive in your yards. Helpful additions to your yard include:

• Bug hotels: simple wooden structures that have lots of crevices where bee species, beetles, and moths can shelter during the colder months.
• A saucer of fresh water: to safely provide vital hydration for bees and other insects.
• Planting wildflowers: Flowers attract pollinators to your yard and provide them with the nutritious nectar and pollen they need for their hive.

6. Take care when driving to prevent roadkill

Ideally, road infrastructure would include wildlife crossings that provide safe migration routes across major roadways. Unfortunately, more than 5.5 million animals die on roads worldwide every day! In the US, West Virginia has the highest levels of roadkill, with odds of 1 in 38 of hitting a deer. Pensylvania’s elk country is another hotspot.

Taking care when driving can make a massive difference in roadkill rates. Slow down as much as possible so that animals have time to respond to your vehicle. Honking your horn can also deter animals. If you do hit an animal, move it from the road to prevent the corpse from attracting predators onto the road.

7. Don’t buy products made from hunted endangered animals

One of the key drivers of species endangerment is the illegal wildlife trade, a multi-billion dollar industry that spans the entire globe. There is a continual demand for trafficked animal parts eaten, used in traditional medicines, or used as fashion or furnishing. Examples of poached animal products include:

• Ivory products
• Tiger skins and bones
• ‘Bush meat’ including the flesh of primates and rodents

The criminals that kill and sell poached wildlife only do it because people are willing to buy from them. By avoiding products from the illegal wildlife trade, poachers and traffickers are starved of profit and won’t take the risk of harming endangered species.

8. Don’t buy exotic pets

Wildlife crime doesn’t just involve dead animals. There is a demand for living rare and exotic creatures to be kept as pets. This is a particular problem in the aquarium industry, where demand for tropical saltwater and freshwater fish has led to their depletion in their natural habitat.

These animals often struggle to thrive outside of their native habitat. Owners may struggle to care for larger animals like big cats, or poor security may mean that they escape. Despite being threatened, these species may even become invasive in a new environment.

9. Go plastic-free

Plastic is one of the world’s most pernicious pollutants. Over 14 million tons of plastic enter oceans and waterways annually, forming over 80% of all marine debris. Plastic is not only ingested by diverse marine organisms and can also be a potent endocrine disruptor.

This means that our addition to single-use non-recycled plastic products threatens the health and reproductive capacity of endangered marine species. Avoiding these cheap and convenient plastic products is not always easy, but reducing plastic use can improve marine environments and biodiversity.

If you end up using plastics, recycling them will help keep them out of landfills and the sea.

10. Reduce your use of synthetic chemicals

Synthetic chemicals like cleaning agents, dyes, and personal care products are a part of daily life. Though humans largely tolerate them, many of the chemicals we use can cause significant environmental damage if they get into lakes, rivers, and oceans.

Aquatic life, including rare and threatened species, is harmed by many household products that are washed into surface water and persist in these fragile marine ecosystems. An example is the nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) used in the textile industry. The long-term ecological effect is environmental degradation and a loss of biodiversity.

Make the switch to using environmentally-friendly alternatives of household products like laundry detergent, dish soap, surface cleaners, and personal care products. Many of the best eco-friendly products feature natural ingredients that biodegrade quickly before they can harm living things.

11. Boycott companies that damage our environment

People are increasingly recognizing the industrial, commercial, and financial activity that is damaging our environment, leading to the loss of species worldwide. These corporations continue their activities because it has remained profitable for them to do so. Attempts for reform in this area are often little more than ‘green-washing‘.

One of the most effective ways to hold big polluters to account is by boycotting their products and services. Circular Magazine says some of the world’s biggest polluters include McDonald’s, PepsiCo, and Coca-Cola.

Efforts to switch to eco-friendly alternatives that operate more ethically would send a clear message that they must change their polluting ways. It may initially be more expensive and less convenient, but if enough people say no, the message is sent. You can even write to the CEOs to let them know your concern about the environmental harm they are causing.

12. Reduce, reuse, recycle!

Mankind’s insatiable demand for natural resources has led to the destruction of the ecosystems that are home to many endangered species. Demand for raw materials like oil and gas, wood, minerals, and precious metals has meant that the habitats of many animals have been removed to make way for industrial development.

This leaves vulnerable populations of creatures without safe environments to live, hunt, and breed. Even where there are pockets of land that are left intact, there are no wildlife corridors that facilitate the movement of animals from one region to another.

The exploitation of natural resources only continues at the rate it does because of demand. By reducing the number of new items purchased, reusing, repairing, and recycling them at the end of their usable life, you can drive down demand for raw materials and allow valuable ecosystems to recover.

13. Avoid invasive species

Invasive species are plant and animal species that have been introduced to an ecosystem where they are not native. They include animals, amphibians, and fish kept as pets, plants, and even seeds that can escape into the local environment and proliferate. This makes them a massive threat to local wildlife!

Invasive species are tricky because the alien organism may have a selection advantage that enables it to outcompete native organisms and dominate the ecosystem. If the spread of invasive species is not curtailed, native species can quickly become threatened or even eradicated by them.

You can help to reduce the spread of invasive species by:

• Only plant native plants in your yard and opt for active house plant species.
• Learning the common invasive species in your region and reporting them to environmental agencies if you see them anywhere.
• If you travel, clean your footwear, luggage, and other equipment to prevent potentially invasive plant seeds and debris from being introduced to your locality.
• If you go camping, purchase firewood near your campsite rather than bringing it from home.

14. Avoid foods and products that use palm oil

Palm oil consumption is a massive driver of habitat destruction and environmental degradation that endangers multiple South East Asian species like the Sumatran rhino, pygmy elephants, and orangutans.

Palm oil is derived from the flesh and kernels of the fruit of the oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis). It originated in Africa but is now heavily cultivated in Asia. Over centuries this oil has been extremely useful to man and is currently used in almost everything we buy including.

• Soaps and detergents
• Cooking oil
• Processed foods
• Cosmetics
• Chocolate
• Peanut butter
• Toothpaste
• Biofuels

Because the oil palm tree is a lucrative crop that is very quick and easy to grow, many people are cutting down and burning valuable rainforests to use the vacant land to cultivate it. This prolific deforestation has largely destroyed the habitats of many species, which have now become endangered. Without reform of this sector, the damage will continue unchallenged.

One of the ways in which you can help these endangered animals is by not buying products that use palm oil or switching to palm oil products that come from a certified sustainable source. The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil  (RSPO), founded in 2004, certifies palm oil sources as being sustainable and not contributing to deforestation.

15. Become a sustainable tourist

In many parts of the world, species become endangered because it is simply more lucrative for locals to poach them than keep them alive. One way of contributing to animal conservation is by participating in sustainable tourism that profits local communities and empowers them to be stewards and protectors of their natural environments and species.

Going on safaris, snorkeling trips, or sustainable tours means local populations can earn a good living by caring for vulnerable species and promoting their welfare. Choosing sustainable tourism helps reduce the tourist industry’s negative impacts and alleviates poverty, demonstrating to local communities how valuable their natural resources are.

16. Eat locally and sustainably produced food

Agriculture is essential for feeding the world, but some methods are more damaging than others. One effect of globalization has been the massive number of food miles clocked up but the things you eat before they get to your place. Extensive air, rail, sea, and road freight of food is not only polluting but also drives:

• Deforestation and cash crop farming
• Mega farms and their devastating monoculture
• Genetically modified crops
• Heavy pesticide use destroys vital pollinators and disrupts ecosystems 

Another way that everyone can help endangered species is by eschewing these damaging forms of agriculture and opting for eating locally and seasonally. Local producers who farm organically and use non-intensive agricultural methods are great stewards of the environment.

Their food may be more expensive in the short term, but it is often better quality and more nutritious. If enough people change the way they eat, these environmentally friendly forms of farming could go mainstream:

Rounding up

Reducing the detrimental environmental impact of our modern way of life can give the world’s most endangered species vital breathing space to recover.

If everyone makes the small changes outlined above, there may be enough momentum gained to effect real and lasting change in how we steward the environment. This should allow species of all kinds to flourish in their natural habitats and be appreciated by all.

In this article, we’ll take a look at the causes, effects, and solutions for urbanization, including a breakdown of the sustainable cities strategy and how future current and future generations might implement this.

What is urbanization?

Urbanization is the phenomenon of the sustained mass movement of people from the rural areas of a country or region to cities and suburbs.

What is an urban area?

The US Census defines an urban area as a continuously built-up region with a population of 50,000 or more. These towns and cities usually have a central built-up area with a surrounding densely settled urban fringe.

The urbanization phenomenon

Due to this massive population shift to cities, their size had grown, leading to an increasing proportion of land being requisitioned and developed for housing and amenities for an expanding urbanized population. Conversely, rural populations have gradually declined as more and more people leave for the cities.

Urbanization is taking place all over the world. It is as common in more economically developed countries as it is in lesser economically developed countries. According to the World Bank, more than 56% of the world’s population lives in cities. This means that more than 4.4 billion people call some part of a city their home. The urbanization trend is set to continue, with a peak of over 70% of people living in urbanized environments by 2050.

The scale of the urbanization issue

Urbanization is a global issue that has led to a marked change in how people work and live.

But this is changing quickly. By clicking on any country shown in the World Data map, you can see how urbanization rates change with time. For many countries, you see a rapid migration of populations into towns and cities.

It’s all about people

Urbanization is primarily about the movement of people rather than the buildings and infrastructure that they inhabit. This phenomenon is really about people leaving to seek better living conditions, work and opportunities, and an environment that appears to offer them.

Money moves to cities, too

The expectation of a better life by moving to cities is understandable, as more than 80% of global GDP is generated in cities. Urbanization is a key characteristic of global economic development. Wealth and productivity are concentrated in cities, leading to an uplift in the per capita level of income for residents and trickle-down rises in the standard of living.

Cities are hubs of regional infrastructure, often with industrialized districts where manufacturing and other productive activity take place. This industrialization of economies was historically the primary driver of net migration from rural communities to cities, as plentiful work was available.

In countries with a service-based economy, the industry is not the primary pull, but the migration for job opportunities has continued.

What are the causes of urbanization?

There are significant drivers of urbanization that are similar throughout the world. Here are the leading identified causes for the population shift to towns and cities:

1. The industrialization of economies

The 18th-century industrial revolution that was born in Great Britain has been gradually exported around the world. As countries industrialize their economies, they build infrastructure to process raw materials and manufacture various goods for domestic use and export.

This necessitates the creation of jobs to supply the manpower for factories and other industrial facilities. Industrial workers also need nearby housing and amenities, drawing other workers to establish urban communities.

The industrial district also develops infrastructure related to the movement of goods, trade, and commerce. This catalyzes the development of towns and cities around areas of industry.

2. Employment opportunities

A city is a man-made ecosystem that is driven by human activity. Continuous labor is required for every aspect of urban existence, with jobs spanning administration to waste management. This means plentiful job opportunities enable incomers to establish themselves quickly in cities.

Urban jobs typically pay a regular wage that is usually higher than can be earned in the countryside. This is a powerful draw for people living a physically demanding rural lifestyle, which is seasonal and often has unpredictable earnings.

3. Infrastructure and amenities

Another cause of urbanization is the attraction of the advanced infrastructure that urban areas contain. Towns and cities are developed environments where sustained investment has created robust networks of roads, telecommunications, power, fresh water access, sanitation, and sophisticated supply chains for the products and services that city dwellers require.

People want to move to cities to take advantage of these services that may not be available in many rural parts of the world. Urban areas provide residents with access to key amenities like schools, hospitals, shops, and entertainment and recreational facilities that can provide residents with a better quality of life.

4. Centralization of commerce

Through industrialization and the manufacture and trade of goods, cities quickly become commercial centers, with people heading into them to buy and sell. The high and concentrated population increases the demand for goods and services which can be delivered to the population for profit.

The high level of financial transactions in cities and towns necessitates the presence of banks and other financial institutions that concentrate wealth. Many cities even have their own stock exchange or markets for the large-scale trading of commodities and other investments.

5. Centralization of education, culture, and government

Urbanization has offered people a massive uplift in their quality of life, enabling them to pursue pursuits beyond subsistence living. Cities are often well-designed and government, making them centers of political power.

In addition, leading academic institutions use the infrastructure and amenities to educate the population and attract the leading thinkers within a nation. Entertainment venues like theaters, bars, and sports facilities shape a cohesive identity and culture for a city’s inhabitants. These factors make the concept of a city aspiration to many people.

6. Modernization

Urban areas are also attractive because they are associated with a modern way of life. Cities attract a highly literate, savvy, and well-informed population with access to the most advanced technology a nation can offer its people. New fashions, political ideas, and creativity often come from urban districts, which may be more liberal due to their wealth and opportunity.

Cities absorb large numbers of people who want to live an urbanized lifestyle. Many people are even prepared to endure living in slum-dwellings for many years to escape rural poverty, and to obtain the chance for social advancement.

7. Displacement of peoples

People do not always voluntarily find themselves living in urban areas. Throughout history, the displacement and concentration of people have been associated with war, famine, land grabs, and slavery.

As people disperse from rural areas, the agricultural and natural resource potential of rural areas is concentrated in the hands of fewer and fewer people. The world’s five biggest landowners, including the Roman Catholic Church, Australian mining magnate Gina Rinehart, and Mudanjiang City Mega Farm own nation-sized quantities of land.

8. Natural resource exploitation

Previously underdeveloped rural areas can be rapidly transformed into urbanized communities through the discovery of valuable natural resources like precious metals, minerals, or oil. Resource exploitation requires massive investment infrastructure that attracts workers and their dependents.

The increased productivity and wealth creation of mining towns can lead to them becoming cities, with diversified real estate, like commercial buildings and shops, and robust transport links (road, rail) to other urban areas.

9. Population increases

Global population growth accelerated in the second half of the 20th century and currently stands at over 7.8 billion people. Many nations house most of their population in urban areas because it offers the opportunity for high-density housing that can accommodate large numbers of people in a relatively small area rather than lower-density rural housing.

The key effects of urbanization

Towns and cities attract people because of their opportunities and convenience. But urbanization has numerous advantages, and the disadvantages of rapid and often unplanned urban growth. are increasingly recognized. Here are some of the most important effects of urbanization:

An uplift in living standards for many

Cities can significantly uplift living standards for larger populations of people than rural areas. This is primarily because of the centralization of a region’s economic and human resources, driving wealth creation and innovation.

Cities provide ready access to essential services like education and healthcare. In particular, studies have shown that infant mortality is significantly reduced in urban areas because of quick access to health services.

Authorities and private companies can also easily provide cheaper access to fresh water, sanitation, and utilities in the city than in expansive underdeveloped rural areas.

The development of slums and squatter settlements

One of urbanization’s most important negative effects is the development of slum districts. These are unofficial extensions to towns and cities that offer the cheapest housing opportunities for poor people who have migrated to an urban area.

Slums are found worldwide but are most concentrated in developing countries. The UN has suggested that up to a third of urban inhabitants live in slums. These urban districts are characterized by the following:

• Poor housing is often erected using discarded materials.
• Overcrowded high-density neighborhoods.
• Few utilities and amenities as the neighborhoods are informally erected or squatter communities.
• No waste disposal or sanitation facilities, leading to disease outbreaks.
• Few public services creating impoverished, segregated communities with little hope of improving their circumstances.

Increased demand for water and sanitation

Though access to water and sanitation is one of the key benefits of urbanization, the rate of urbanization can outstrip these essential resources. Many poorer countries not only have to provide water to metropolitan areas but also have to meet rising demand from slums and other informal urbanized settlements.

A continuous rise in urban population leads to a massive increase in the demand for water, stressing reservoir and groundwater supplies. In addition, municipal authorities have the challenge of dealing with the wastewater generated by a large and concentrated population. Many developing countries have little to no sewage infrastructure in place.

Providing sanitation infrastructure for slums is difficult because the neighborhoods are unplanned and heterogeneous. Any pit latrines or septic tanks that are installed are often inadequate and can become a health risk, contaminating freshwater supplies or overflowing and spreading disease.

Generation of waste and pollution

The concentrated human population in urban areas negatively affects the surrounding environment significantly. This is not because of the people themselves but because of how they live. Urban lifestyles consume natural resources and generate waste and pollution. Negative effects include:

• Air pollution: Traffic in urban areas is often congested, leading to increased air pollution and a sustained deterioration in air quality in urban centers. Air quality is also degraded by burning wood for heat and cooking, and exhaust fumes from industrial activity.

• Water pollution: In many developing countries, surface water and watercourses in urban areas become open sewers and polluted with solid waste. Without regulation and enforcement, businesses will also discharge pollutants into waterways, leading to long-term contamination of surface and groundwater supplies. 

• Municipal solid waste: The waste generated by urban populations needs to be carefully managed, or it will pollute the environment. Many urban areas and slums are affected by the open dumping or burning of waste. This releases pollutants that are extremely hazardous to human health. 

Damage to human health

Though people in towns and cities often have ready access to healthcare facilities, urbanization can have devastating long-term effects on human health. The main adverse health effects of urbanization come from the pollution and waste that is generated by the artificially concentrated population.

Poor urban inhabitants face the health challenges that come with degraded living conditions and limited clean water and sanitation. But poor air quality or waterborne disease outbreaks can affect city-dwellers of all socioeconomic levels. Sadly, the youngest and most vulnerable members of urbanized communities are often affected most.

Pressure on food supplies

The massive movement of people to cities places pressure on the supply and distribution of food. People living in cities are no longer producers of their own food. As consumers, they are reliant on purchased food that needs to be brought into the city.

Food security in urban areas is vulnerable to the market prices for different foods. As demand rises, food can become expensive, especially as the availability of agricultural land is increasingly eroded by urban sprawl. Freshwater pollution can also harm fish stocks that urban communities may rely on for food.

Social problems

Urban environments can also foment entrenched social problems, often driven by socioeconomic deprivation and slum proliferation. Built-up urban environments that are not properly managed and secured can allow criminal activity like drug abuse and prostitution to proliferate and dominate specific parts of a town or city.

Poorer residents of cities may find themselves working long hours, leading to strain on family and community relations. Overcrowding and poor living conditions deteriorate the quality of life, health, and prospects of younger urban dwellers. In developing countries, neglected children may become street children missing out on education.

Are there solutions for urbanization?

Organizations like the World Bank and the UN have partnered with governments and stakeholders to investigate and develop solutions for urbanization. The current consensus is that a new type of urban environment known as a sustainable city should be developed.

What is a sustainable city?

Sustainable cities and communities are a reimagined form of urbanization with environments that have been deliberately created to be environmentally and resource sustainable. Governments have the aspiration that sustainable cities will be resilient and productive environments with impeccable green credentials.

According to the Energy and Environmental Building Alliance, sustainable cities have the following characteristics, which each serves as solutions to the problems caused by urbanization: 

1. A safe and accessible public transportation network with city-wide coverage encourages people to leave their cars at home.
2. Neighborhoods that are easily biked or walked, for a reduction in short car journeys, which are the most polluting. 
3. A network of electric car charging stations to increase the adoption of electric vehicles in urban environments.
4. Integration of renewable energy sources.
5. Development of energy-efficient, sustainable architecture that features living roofs, solar panels, insulation, and smart building management technology.
6. Infrastructure to maximize the recycling of waste.
7. Access to green spaces and community gardens for the cultivation of food.

In line with the UN’s sustainable development goals, sustainable cities will be inclusive, going a long way to ending the extreme poverty that still affects many parts of the world. Organizations are currently investing and lending money to kickstart the creation of these cities, with the World Bank funding over 230 projects with $33.9 billion in loans and investment project financing.

How sustainable cities are being created

The transition towards sustainable urban environments is already underway. Many of the Sustainable Development Goals are currently being integrated into governmental policy and legislation with little public consultation. However, here are the strategies that are currently being used to develop sustainable cities:

1. Develop new planning policies

A key driver of sustainable cities will be the planning policies used to create and shape them. Urbanization problems like sprawl and slums have arisen because of an absence of urban planning, zoning, or governance.

The movement for sustainable cities is therefore targeting municipal authorities with training, white papers, and diagnostic tools that can help them make better-informed planning decisions. With strengthened planning systems, cities can manage their assets better and develop the sustainable urban environments of the future.

2. Release funding for sustainable development projects

Transforming existing urban environments into sustainable cities and developing new ones will require trillions of dollars, far beyond most countries’ GDP, including the US. This means that financial resources for these cities will have to be raised through borrowing money from banks like the IMF and World Bank. 

The financing costs for sustainable urbanization are estimated to cost more than $5 trillion per year, especially if efforts are made to develop low-emission infrastructure. Developing countries will require the most funding, which could lead to them becoming indebted if they do not derive an economic advantage from the development.

3. Build infrastructure to connect regions and distribute wealth

The centralization of wealth, administration, and governance has long been a feature of cities. However, to ensure that the economic uplift of sustainable cities benefits an entire nation, infrastructure should promote interconnectivity between settled regions.

Strategists specializing in territorial and spatial development advise that infrastructure should level up inequalities within cities and lagging regions to accelerate growth and make jobs accessible to workers without migrating over long distances. By harnessing agglomerations, nations can leverage the productivity of key cities to boost economic growth!

4. Build for environmental resilience

Cities in many parts of the world are vulnerable to the damaging effects of natural disasters like tornadoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis. Developing countries are most affected, with natural disasters costing their economies at least 1% of their GDP annually.

Sustainable cities will feature architectural design and engineering that can withstand disaster conditions. City authorities also have to upgrade their building regulations to ensure they are built in line with the most advanced construction standards.  

The hazardous environments and precarious housing conditions of slums mean that they suffer the most damage if a natural disaster occurs. Urban housing development needs to consider slum communities and embrace an inclusive home-building approach.

5. Invest in the poorest and most marginalized communities

Tackling marginalization is key to creating more productive and inclusive urban environments. Stakeholders are keen to target investment at eradicating entrenched urban poverty and slums. Architects and designers will be required to develop safe and secure housing that can accommodate people who will be displaced as slum neighborhoods are redeveloped.

An important issue has been the lack of service access and connectivity access that slum and informal settlement communities face. By investing in internet access, and other services, these city residents can participate in the digital economy and find opportunities to lift themselves out of poverty.

Another area where inclusivity will be integrated into sustainable cities is accessibility for people with visible and hidden disabilities, maximizing participation by everyone in these innovative urban environments.

In conclusion

The urbanization trend shows no sign of slowing down. As cities become the predominant setting for human life and activity, these built-up environments need to change to be safe, and sanitary and lessen their environmental impact.

However, countries are likely to become heavily indebted to international banks to achieve the sustainable cities proposed as the solution for urbanization. Without a reasonable return on investment, through economic growth and shared prosperity, sustainable cities cannot be sustained.

In this article, we share the causes, effects, and solutions for urban sprawl and how it will impact the implementation of sustainable cities in the coming years.

What is urban sprawl?

Urban sprawl is the uncontained spread of urbanized areas into undeveloped land and greenspaces. Sprawl can often be recognized by its development aesthetics and street patterns that may be inconsistent with the city. It is also known as urban encroachment or suburban sprawl.

The massive expansion of urban areas has taken place without thought given to the wider social and environmental impact. As the sprawl spreads outwards from the city the buildings often become more haphazard, lower-density, and poorly planned and integrated with the city.

The origins of urban sprawl

Throughout the previous great civilizations, notable cities of antiquity like Rome, London, and Jerusalem were contained and walled. This fortification was routine to protect against enemy invasion and continued well beyond the middle ages.

As history progressed, changes in warfare, increases in trade, and, most importantly, the industrial revolution led to the loss of city walls and the growth and outward spread of cities. People began to migrate from rural areas to urban centers to take advantage of plentiful and consistent work.

Major industrialists often provided housing for their workers, creating the beginnings of urban sprawl. This phenomenon has been seen globally as major cities have risen to become nations’ primary commercial and employment centers.

Urban sprawl continues in the United States

America is home to some of the world’s largest conurbations, including BOSNYWASH (Boston, New York City, and Washington), and Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land, the fifth most populated region in the U.S. However, how America’s urban zones are expanding could jeopardize the environment and the community cohesiveness on which the nation has thrived.

Scientists and policymakers have long-standing concerns that these sprawling suburban development patterns are destroying the environment through diminishing greenspaces and natural habitats, and the pollution of land, air, and water. As there is a concerted move towards more sustainable communities in the 21st century, a consensus is emerging that urban sprawl will have to be addressed.

Key features of urban sprawl

There is no universally agreed definition of urban sprawl but the following features are noted in many urban areas that have spread uncontrollably:

1. Spiral outward growth pattern

Studies of large conurbations and urban sprawl have characterized a spiral growth pattern, with arms fanning outwards along the main routes out of the city. Compared to the true city which is relatively compact, the sprawl is lower density.

This is corroborated by a study that found that the majority of new housing built in the US (80%+) are single-family dwellings sited outside urban areas on an acre or more of land.

2. A haphazard development pattern

Urban sprawl shows an irregular pattern of spread with dispersed construction that eats further and further into rural areas. Within the sprawl, variously sized pocks of undeveloped land lead to much more land becoming urbanized than if a town planner coherently organized the construction.

3. Strips

Another feature of sprawl is strips of ribbon development that springs up on either side of a major arterial road leaving the city. This type of development is unnaturally linear and presents a road safety hazard as communities have to cross high-speed highways to access shopping, restaurants, and other local amenities.

These neighborhoods primarily cater to drivers and may leave non-driving residents without adequate access.

4. Low-density dwellings

The properties that spring up in urban sprawl are largely detached single-family homes. This type of property is part of the American dream and an aspiration for many growing families in America. Developers make huge profits on building these large-lot single-family homes on an acre or more of simply landscaped land.

This has led to the majority of land development in the U.S. being either:

• Urban expansion
• Large-lot development

The problem is that these properties are forming the majority of U.S. property development and consuming large amounts of previously productive land. However, with careful design, homes can be extremely resource efficient and minimize their harm to the environment through reduced consumption of natural resources.

5. Short-car journeys

In suburban sprawl, the car is king, and residents have a massive reliance on their cars for even the most basic journeys. Sprawl areas consist of vast residential areas with few shops or neighborhood amenities because homeowners drive their cars everywhere.

Residents drive in and out of the residential areas by car. Nothing is within walking distance, but short car journeys are the most polluting.

6. Blurred boundaries with true rural areas

Urban sprawl has led to a blurred boundary between urban and rural areas. Between 1960 and 1990 more than a million acres of rural land were taken for housing development. These massive amounts of land impact current and future agricultural productivity.

Massive consumption of agricultural land may not be easily discerned with one or two developments in a single rural locality, but the sprawl becomes apparent when viewed at a regional level.

7. Development is single use

Sprawl areas developed with specific areas being reserved for single-family housing, with roads connecting the different areas. Residents in sprawl neighborhoods live in expansive areas that only have new-build housing. They then need to travel to retail parks and malls to shop or enjoy entertainment. The excessive use of land expands to large lawns and golf courses.

What are the causes of urban sprawl?

Urban sprawl is driven by the movement of people with distinct socioeconomic drivers for the demand for sprawl housing. Here are the main causes of urban sprawl:

Cheaper land

The biggest driver of sprawl developments is the lower price of suburban and rural land. A single-family home in the ‘burbs is often cheaper than a cramped city apartment. The lower land means that families can get much more space for their dollar, which motivates them to leave city centers, moving further and further out of the city.

Lower municipal taxes

Another motivation for buying property in sprawl developments is the lower local tax rates in suburban areas. This reduces the cost of living in the sprawl compared to the city center.

Improving incomes and social mobility

The post-war years have seen a sustained rise in incomes and living standards. This has enabled increasing numbers of people to afford a property further out of town.

The search for a better quality of life

Given a choice, higher-earning families opt to live in low-density neighborhoods with much more space. Out-of-town sprawl developments offer larger properties with more living space and locations on the margins of the nearest metropolitan area.

The preference for living at the urban fringe has not changed for decades with several generations pursuing the American dream of home ownership and raising a family in new-build low-density neighborhoods.

Congested living in inner-city neighborhoods

Urban areas have continued to be densely populated as people are drawn to them for work and lifestyle. Increases in the population of cities cause them to grow beyond their capacity, pushing people outwards. Many sprawl-dwellers are motivated by a desire for green spaces, trees, and safer neighborhoods that have been neglected in urban planning.

Availability of nearby commuter solutions

Residents are attracted to these sprawling suburban neighborhoods by the availability of infrastructure (road, bus, rail) that can take commuters back into the city for work. Decreasing commuter costs and the relatively low price of gasoline make life outside of the city easy. The cheaper commuter costs add to the appeal of suburban sprawl living.

The effects of urban sprawl

Heavy marketing of the white picket fence lifestyle of suburban living continues to drive urban sprawl more than 60 years after marketers dreamed up the ad images. But now, sprawl is increasingly attracting opposition, particularly because of its marked environmental effects.

Consumption of land

The acceleration of urban sprawl has consumed massive amounts of agricultural land. Big increases in urban populations have led to the aggressive spread.

An example is Chicago’s growth which had growth of 48% within 45 years but land coverage in excess of 160%. Also, in Boston, the amount of land developed in the last four decades exceeds the last 330 years of inhabitation.

This makes sense when you consider that the number of farms in the United States has fallen more than 63%, with just 2 million farms in 2000 compared to 7 million in 1930. Another trend is the movement of commercial buildings to out-of-town locations. South Florida only has 13% of its office space located in its central business district (CBD).

Environmental effects

The environmental effects of sprawl are wide-ranging, with consequences for wildlife and residents. Key environmental issues in urban sprawl include:

• Air pollution caused by excessive commuter traffic.
• Water pollution caused by increased surface run-off from newly built-up areas.
• Habitat and biodiversity loss, with the loss of natural corridors used by wildlife to move from place to place.
• Creation of man-made barriers to wildlife and increased roadkill from the expansion of the road network.
• Loss of environmentally sensitive areas like wetlands.
• Decrease in open, natural spaces like woodland, plains, or moorlands
• Raised flood risk, as many developments are built on known flood plains.

Public expenditure for infrastructure and services

The expansion of suburban neighborhoods necessitates increased public spending on infrastructure and services for the newly formed communities. Depending on location, money may have to be spent on flood defenses for properties.

Increased traffic and pollution

These disparate suburban neighborhoods are reliant on cars for even the shortest journeys. This mass movement of vehicles into and out of city centers during rush hour leads to a marked deterioration in air quality alongside increased fossil fuel consumption.

Homogeneity of communities

Urban sprawl has also highlighted social issues because the communities that develop in sprawl are generally upwardly mobile with residents of the same income or social group. This may lead to the polarization of communities and the ghettoization of inner city areas, where only socially disadvantaged people remain.

What are the solutions for urban sprawl?

The effects of urban sprawl are undeniable, but finding a solution to the increasing spread of urbanized neighborhoods is a real challenge.

Academics, environmentalists and policymakers that have explored this issue agree that there is no single solution for mitigating urban sprawl. Change must be delivered using a multifaceted strategy. Here are some elements that may work:

Better town planning

Local and regional planning policies are central to preventing the continued spread of urbanized areas. Municipal authorities can lead in guiding the growth of communities so that they have less environmental impact and concentrate resources in specifically designated areas that spare rural settings, like brownfield development.

A more formal approach to town planning with the development of smart growth or compact development, much like the Garden City Movement in the early 20th century, can help safeguard rural areas while offering homeowners the quality of life they are looking for.

Implementation of sprawl reduction policies

Local authorities can also implement more assertive policies like zoning provisions, specific building permits, and boundaries that direct new developments away from rural or ecologically important land.

Incentivizing redevelopment of existing urban areas

Tax breaks, development density bonuses, and providing development opportunities in urban areas such as ex-industrial or brownfield land may encourage developers to invest in improving urban districts rather than the country.

Authorities can also direct public investments toward the redevelopment of urban areas so that their amenities and housing quality can improve. By improving urban districts, people will be more inclined to stay in them, alleviating pressure on the periphery of cities.

Proactive land acquisition

Local, regional, and state governments can implement land acquisition, purchasing important habitats and parcels of land for conservation purposes.

A new generation of state parks, wildlife reserves, and open spaces could help to educate communities about the importance of preserving green spaces and ensure that ecologically critical areas are protected in perpetuity.

In conclusion

Urban sprawl and its drivers represent a failure in town and city planning amidst market forces that make it advantageous for families to move to newly built suburban communities. The sprawl represents a compromise between the accessibility of work, convenient amenities and entertainment in the city and open spaces and a slower pace of life.

However, in the future, homeowners may have to decide to be either city slickers or country bumpkins!

Ocean acidification has the potential to do catastrophic damage to the marine environment and threaten human livelihoods, nutrition, and well-being. In this article, we will look at the carbon dioxide problem in our seas and explore the ocean acidification solutions that could prevent CO₂‘s devastating effects.

What is ocean acidification?

Ocean acidification is simply a sustained fall in the average pH of seawater in the world’s oceans. In the last seven decades, scientists have monitored a steep fall in the pH of oceans from 8.15 to 8.0. This may not seem much, but the pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that a small numerical drop represents a massive swing in acidity.

pH measures the concentration of the hydrogen ions (H⁺) that give seawater its acidity. The more hydrogen ions present in the seawater, the greater the acidity of oceans. A change in pH of just 0.1 means that hydrogen ion concentrations have climbed more than 26%.

Marine scientists routinely monitoring pCO₂ and pH levels in oceanic waters worldwide have identified this disturbing trend. Open ocean voyages provide the opportunity to sample seawater using specialist equipment submerged for real-time readings.

Precision measurements can then be compared with scientists globally who have made similar measurements. Since ocean acidification has been identified and recognized, mitigating its effects is a key part of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 14: Life Below Water.

What causes ocean acidification?

The primary source of these excess H+ ions is atmospheric carbon dioxide. Though carbon dioxide is gas, it is also soluble in water. Normally CO₂ is cycled between the atmosphere and oceans with high uptake in biologically active parts of the ocean, and release in warmer and less active marine environments. Learn more about carbon cycle steps.

As CO₂ emissions have risen, the world’s oceans have absorbed the excess. When the ocean absorbs CO₂, it becomes carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid further dissociates to become a bicarbonate ion (HCO−3) and a hydrogen ion (H+).

Though the oceanic pH is falling, it remains alkaline for now. Still, the effects of acidification are felt by organisms like mollusks and corals that need an abundance of calcium carbonate to build their shells and skeletons.

Increased H+ reduces vital carbonate ion levels, especially in colder and higher latitude waters that can absorb greater concentrations of CO₂.

Ocean acidification is based on an average pH reading, but this phenomenon can be localized in certain areas of increased gaseous exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean.

What are the effects of ocean acidification?

Ocean acidification has wide-ranging effects. Some are poorly understood, but the consensus amongst scientists is that a reduction in oceanic pH will harm marine life. Here is a closer look at the effects:

Harm to marine organisms

The primary concern is the increased seawater pH’s effect on marine biology. The diverse ecosystems within oceans are sensitive to water chemistry, and even a slight derangement of parameters like pH could devastate populations of the most sensitive organisms. Biologists are concerned about the following multifaceted effects on marine organisms:

• Reduced calcification of corals, exoskeletons, and shells due to decreased carbonate levels in seawater.
• Increased predation of mollusks, corals, and other organisms with exoskeletons because their shells are weaker.
• Uptake of carbonic acid by fish leads to metabolic acidosis, a condition where the acid builds up in the blood and affects the metabolism. The acid acts as a stressor and compromises the growth and reproductive functions of the fish.
• Depression of marine organisms’ biological systems and functions leads to depressed metabolism, reduced reproduction, and increased susceptibility to disease.
• Disruption of the process by which larval corals and other organisms migrate to an optimal marine environment to grow.
• Larval urchins have been found to struggle to digest their food in acidic conditions.
• Phytoplankton and other marine microorganisms may struggle to reproduce if ocean pH becomes too deranged.
• The growth of seaweed and marine vegetation may also change, altering the composition of many coastal ecosystems.

Destruction of marine ecosystems

The smallest marine organisms are foundational to the food chains and biological systems that make up marine ecosystems. If left unchecked, ocean acidification could lead to the extinction of the most sensitive marine species. This would produce a catastrophic collapse in the availability of organisms critical to the marine food chain.

Collapse of fisheries

The fisheries that are sustained by normal ocean biochemistry are also under threat. Though larger organisms may be able to tolerate the acidification for longer, the loss of smaller marine organisms creates food stress that can lead to the dwindling of fish stocks.

The impact will be felt by the fishermen and other people who rely on fisheries for their livelihoods, currently estimated at more than a billion people. The devastations of oceans will also be felt in regions that attract tourists to visit their unique marine ecosystems.

Ocean acidification solutions: what can be done to mitigate this issue?

The issue of ocean acidification can be remedied by methods that tackle the levels of atmospheric free carbon dioxide in our environment. Climatologists say that the atmospheric carbon dioxide level has never been more than 300 parts per million. In the last 70 years, free CO₂ has climbed by just under 50% to approximately 420 parts per million.

The legacy levels of carbon that we find in our environment after 250 years of industrialization need to be tacked with the removal and sequestration of excess atmospheric CO₂. This has been the primary driver of ocean acidification; therefore, any steps that can be taken to reduce CO₂ emissions should positively affect this ongoing marine problem.

Scientists, environmentalists, technologists, and engineers are exploring various methods for recovering this excess CO₂. Strategies range from planting trees to advanced air-capture plants that can strip carbon dioxide from the environment. Though many solutions are currently proposals, their successful implementation could kickstart an economic revolution that can clean up our skies and seas.

Right now, CO₂ reduction methods are broadly grouped into direct methods using oceans as a potential carbon sink for the sequestration of CO₂, or indirect methods that reduce the rate of harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Let’s take a look at strategies that are currently being proposed.

Direct methods of reducing ocean acidification

Direct methods that are being explored for the reduction of acidification of the oceans leverage the oceans’ ability to sequester vast amounts of carbon dioxide. Oceans are the planet’s largest carbon sink. These massive bodies of water and the marine life within them can draw CO₂ out of the atmosphere and use it to support marine life or store it in the oceanic depths.

The complex biological and biogeochemical processes by which oceans remove CO₂ to the deep ocean are only just being understood. If they can be safely exploited, they can transform the upward trajectory of CO₂ concentrations and mitigate the acidification that is currently damaging our seas.

Direct solutions for ocean acidification comprise novel, ocean-based Negative Emissions Technologies (NET) that can actively remove CO₂ from the atmosphere. This is a completely new and underdeveloped area of environmental science, so the suggested solutions may or may not help to stabilize atmospheric CO₂ levels.

The most promising area of ocean-based NET is the nascent field of Ocean-based carbon dioxide removal (CDR). It has a suite of technologies and solutions that utilize existing oceanic biological and geological processes to absorb and store CO₂ within marine life, ocean geology, or the Challenger Deep at depths of more than 35,876 feet (10,935 meters).

Here are the five key Ocean-based carbon dioxide removal methods to watch:

1. Cultivating seaweed for carbon sequestration

Seaweeds are marine macroalgae that thrive on CO₂, removing it from the water and converting it into the sugars that drive their growth! Cultivation of seaweed could sequester vast amounts of carbon dioxide and, depending on the seaweed species used, provide a delicious and extremely nutritious food source that does not require fertilizers for its growth.

A notable advantage of this ocean acidification solution is the rapid growth rate of many seaweed species, which can see some kelp varieties grow more than 2 feet (60 centimeters) in a single day, meaning that carbon removal could be accelerated by using the right species.

Scientists also propose that the seaweed could be converted into biochar, bioplastics or simply sunk in the ocean depths. Engineers are seeking to automate the seaweed cultivation process using floating oceanic platforms with robotics for harvesting, the creation of bales, and sinking the seaweed into the deep ocean for long-term sequestration.

2. Use of phytoplankton cultivation for carbon sequestration

Phytoplankton are the microalgae at the bottom of the marine food chain. These microscopic organisms may be tiny, but they use CO₂ to drive rapid growth, taking it out of the atmosphere and water. Scientists believe that even a small rise in the overall mass of phytoplankton could impact CO₂ levels and provide marine life with an abundant food source.

Proposals have been made to harness phytoplankton for CO₂ fixation by promoting the ideal environment for microalgae growth in specific ocean areas.

Specific areas of the ocean could be targeted for phytoplankton blooms by using wave-powered pumps to bring nutrients from deeper seawater to the photic zone where these microalgae can thrive.

3. Enhancement of ocean alkalinity

This method primarily seeks to mitigate the effects of acidification by introducing alkaline minerals that can help water pH move towards neutral. This method accelerates natural rock weathering or adds alkaline material to seawater. It is hoped that this will alter oceanic biochemistry to generate chemical reactions that overall lead to the movement of CO₂ to deeper levels of the ocean.

4. Supporting the growth of blue carbon ecosystems

More and more people realize that carbon dioxide emissions can be mitigated by simply putting carbon back where it belongs. A great example of this is the blue carbon ecosystem.

These marine ecosystems can capture and store more CO₂ per unit of area than forests. Coastal areas are now being recognized for the large amounts of CO₂ they can fix and use, keeping it out of the atmosphere and creating fertile habitats for wildlife. These can include:

• Salt marshes
• Estuaries
• Mangroves
• Seagrass meadows

Marine biologists believe that the destruction of these valuable ecosystems has contributed to CO₂ release and ocean acidification.

5. Direct ocean capture

This industrialized and energy-intensive solution would see pumped sea water being stripped of its CO₂ using electrochemistry in a dedicated facility comparable to a desalination plant. The CO₂ removed would then be stored in deep rock layers. Alternatively, the CO₂ could be used to blast alkaline rocks to boost ocean alkalinity, enabling seas to absorb more atmospheric CO₂.

Indirect methods of reducing ocean acidification

Indirect methods of reducing ocean acidification are all aimed at reducing CO₂ emissions. The great thing about these methods is that everyone can play their part. By making simple lifestyle changes, we can help to slow the rate of CO₂ emissions, reducing the burden on our oceans.

In most industrialized countries, more than 80% of carbon dioxide emissions are generated by:

1. Energy generation
2. Transportation
3. Buildings

By focusing on these areas, tangible progress can be made in curbing the upward trajectory of CO₂ emissions. Here are some methods that may prove effective.

1. Building insulation

In 2022, the US energy sector generated at least 4,970 million metric tons (MMmt) of CO₂ emissions. This massive amount could be reduced by preventing the significant energy wastage that comes from heat loss via poorly insulated buildings.

Investing in properly insulating your property means that less energy is required to heat it. Not only does this reduce the consumption of oil, coal, and natural gas that is burnt for energy generation, you’ll save on bills too.

2. Energy-efficient lighting and appliances

Electricity generation accounts for at least 31% of the US energy sector carbon emissions, so anything you can do to reduce your electricity consumption will positively affect carbon dioxide emissions. There are so many ways you can use less electricity:

• Switch incandescent light bulbs for low-energy LED bulbs.
• Choose energy-efficient domestic appliances like your refrigerator or microwave.
• Turn off the lights when you leave a room.
• Switch off appliances at the socket.
• Complete a home energy audit to identify energy-inefficient appliances.

If enough people take these simple actionable steps, there will be a tangible reduction in the demand for electricity and the generation of carbon dioxide emissions.

3. Renewable energy

Renewable energy sources harness wind, water, sun, and geothermal energy to generate electricity by burning fossil fuels or wood. Though none of the major renewable energy technologies can meet current energy demands, they make a significant contribution to energy generation that reduces CO₂ emissions in many countries around the world.

4. Leave the car at home

Short car journeys are not only fuel-inefficient, but also incredibly polluting. If you own a car, it is convenient to use it for every journey. However, by skipping driving for walking, cycling, or public transport, you can reduce the amount of CO₂ your vehicle releases by burning fuel. Again, it is a simple lifestyle change that not only gets you some exercise and saves you dollars, but also drives down needless CO₂ emissions.

5. Reducing food miles

Shockingly, most meals in the U.S. will have traveled more than 1,500 miles to get to your plate. Transporting food by road, rail or air takes energy and releases CO₂, with air freight being the most polluting.

A switch to eating local, seasonal food may be expensive and inconvenient at first, but it makes a real difference in cutting the long distances our food has to travel. In many parts of America, people are choosing to support local farmers and producers by buying at least some of their groceries from a farmers’ market.

6. Repair, reuse, recycle

Oceans are not just suffering because of CO₂ but also the microplastics and other waste that is entering them daily. Consumer lifestyles consume natural resources, with purchases like fast fashion having a big carbon footprint.

This type of disposable culture is unsustainable long-term, prompting various business owners and stakeholders to look for an alternative approach that will minimize carbon dioxide emissions and place less pressure on natural resources.

One such solution is the circular economy, where the lifespan of products is prolonged through repairing and reusing items that would have been discarded, along with recycling them at the end of their lifespan.

7. Protect natural environments

As mentioned earlier, massive emissions of CO₂ are being generated by the destruction and degradation of ecosystems that would have fixed and stored it. Countries must be proactive about protecting their natural environment so that the ecosystems that function as natural carbon sinks are not disturbed.

These important ecosystems need to be protected with robust legislation that forbids activities like logging, construction, and intensive agriculture on them. In some countries, organizations are investing in the rewilding of open spaces so that they mature into biologically diverse ecosystems that can remove significant amounts of CO₂.

8. Turn down thermostats

This is another simple but impactful act that can help to reduce the CO₂ emissions generated by everyday household activity. Thermostats are everywhere in your home. Turning back the temperature of your furnace, hot water, washer-dryer, dishwasher, or air conditioning will save massive amounts of energy and reduce demand.

Rounding up

There are a variety of technological, biological, and initiative-led solutions that can help solve the ocean acidification problem. Experts from a variety of disciplines are working together to develop and test these and other carbon-reducing solutions. To achieve tangible change, governments, NGOs, and policymakers are exploring how they can support and invest in ocean acidification solutions to accelerate their implementation and embed long-term change.

Disposing of nuclear waste and managing natural and manufactured radiation sources in our environment is difficult. If inadequately contained, radioactive waste and pollution can cause serious health problems and long-term environmental contamination.

To help you understand the serious implications of nuclear radiation and radioactive pollution, this article closely examines the causes, effects, and solutions to nuclear radiation.

What is radioactive pollution?

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defines radioactive pollution as the unintended or undesirable presence or deposition of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids, and gasses. For this article, radioactive pollution and radiological contamination will be used interchangeably. 

The contamination of land, air, seas, and freshwater with radioactive contaminants introduces these environments and the living things within them to ionizing radiation generated by the decay of radioactive material.

The unstable nuclear state of radioactive elements leads to their degradation releasing hazardous energy in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma rays along with free neutrons.

Radioactive waste and pollutants vary in their level of radioactivity and capacity to harm. But sustained contact with the bodily organs of humans and animals can lead to tissue damage, disease, genetic mutations, cancers, and death.

One of the big problems with radioactive pollution is that it is persistent, with radioactive substances releasing damaging radiation for decades or even centuries after the contaminating incident depending on the half-life of the contaminant.

Radioactive waste is a major source of nuclear radiation pollution

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), there are five types of radioactive waste:

1. High-level waste

High-level nuclear waste is the most dangerous and toxic form of nuclear waste. Only 1% of all radioactive waste is high-level waste. Its hazardous nature means that it is usually stored at the facility where it is generated. High-level nuclear waste primarily comes from two sources:

1. Solid spent nuclear fuels: the majority of high-level waste.
2. Liquid high-level waste from defense activities.

2. Transuranic waste

Transuranic waste is a special category of radioactive waste derived from manufacturing nuclear fuels and weapons. This type of waste is generated by man-made radioactive elements with an atomic number of 92 or higher. This waste is so dangerous that disposable items associated with its development must be stored at a remote Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP).

3. Mill tailings 

As mentioned below, mill tailings are solid wastes left over from uranium and thorium processing. These highly radioactive discarded materials require sealed storage at a dedicated facility.

4. Technologically enhanced naturally-occurring radioactive material (TENORM)

TENORM materials are naturally occurring radiological materials (NORM) that man has enhanced through processes like enrichment, with various uses in industry. TENORM materials are less potent than high-level waste but require careful disposal in-line with state regulations.

5. Low-level waste

Low-level radioactive waste is generated by industry, healthcare, and defense. Low-level and very low-level waste account for over 95% of the total amount of radioactive waste generated.

It usually consists of disposable items in contact with radioactive materials or sources. Though they are not as dangerous as the other classes of radioactive waste, they still require disposal by specialist companies at a designated disposal facility.

Key sources of radioactive waste and pollution

Nuclear radiation has wide-ranging positive and negative applications in the modern world. Radioactive waste is a byproduct of its use. As 10% of the world’s energy consumption is nuclear generated, radioactive elements, materials, and waste are found in every continent, along with the potential for significant pollution.

 Here are the most important sources of radioactive waste today:

1. The nuclear energy sector

Nuclear energy generation generates radioactive waste, which can be low-level or high-level. Nuclear waste is a pernicious and environmental pollutant that comes from the following sources in the production of nuclear energy:

A. Uranium mill tailings

Uranium-235 is the primary driver of the nuclear reaction that is used to generate electricity. Uranium ore is milled to purify it for use in the energy sector. However, this process generates mill tailings, a waste product with more than 85% of the radioactivity of the original ore.

Tailings have only recently been recognized as high-risk radioactive waste. This means that disposal plans for mill tailings were inadequate for many decades, leading to pollution of the surrounding environment.

B. Spent nuclear reactor fuel

Once nuclear fuel has been exhausted through use in a reactor, it is known as spent fuel. The uranium oxide used to generate nuclear energy is packaged in tiny ceramic pellets stacked with metallic rods known as fuel rods.

Spent rods are solid when removed from a nuclear reactor and require particular disposal in a spent fuel tank at the nuclear power plant. In the US, over 2,000 tons of spent fuel is generated each year, a volume that could fill half of an Olympic-sized swimming pool.

C. Tools and equipment

Any equipment that comes into contact with radioactive dust or particulate matter at nuclear processing facilities and power plants also requires careful disposal.

2. Nuclear accidents

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defines nuclear accidents as events where large amounts of radioactive material are dispersed, leading to significant consequences to nuclear facilities, the environment, and people.

Nuclear accidents vary in severity and impact on the environment. In major nuclear accidents like the 1986 Chornobyl disaster and the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident, the core of a nuclear reactor has been damaged, leading to the massive release of radioisotopes into the surrounding environment.

Since Chornobyl, there have been more than 57 nuclear accidents and severe incidents worldwide. 60% of these have taken place in the United States. Though many risk mitigation procedures are in place at nuclear power plants, facilities, and nuclear submarines, human error remains a major cause of nuclear accidents.

Nuclear accidents have a massive ecological impact that can have immediate and long-term effects. The radioactive pollution of land, water, and air can take decades to clean up and bring to safe levels.

3. The defense sector

In countries that have a military with nuclear capabilities, defense activities will generate nuclear waste which is usually uranium or plutonium-based but not the products of nuclear fission.

Nuclear weapons, submarines, and other military equipment become significant nuclear waste sources when decommissioned.

Radioactive pollution from nuclear testing

Nuclear testing has been an infamous cause of radioactive pollution. Though the last ‘known’ nuclear tests were carried out by America, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union in the 1990s, the pollution of land, water, and airspace can be persistent.

This is because 15% of the total energy of a nuclear explosion is radiation, with the dispersal of radionuclides that emit radiation as they degrade. The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed in 1996.

3. Radon gas emissions

Radon gas is a naturally occurring source of radiation. It is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. Radon is one of the largest contributors to background radiation and is leached from uranium present in granite, shale, and other rocks. In regions that have high concentrations of radon, the gas can build up in properties, increasing the risk of cancer.

There is a strong association between radon gas and lung cancer. Alaska, South Dakota, and Pennsylvania have some of the highest radon gas concentrations in the U.S.

4. Radioactive sources used in industry

One of the most vulnerable areas to radioactive pollution and significant human harm is the use of radioactive sources in industry. Radioactive sources used in industry have caused numerous fatal incidents because of improper storage, handling, and loss, like the Mexico City radiation accident (1962) and the Rio Tinto Western Australian radioactive capsule incident in 2023.

Radioactive sources and capsules are used in industry in the following ways:

A. Inspection

Radioactive sources are used in various manufacturing industries to inspect the integrity of fabrication, such as welding. Like an X-ray, the radioactive source is placed on one side and a detector on the other to look at how materials are penetrated. This provides a convenient and portable method for inspecting items without risking internal damage.

B. Tracers

Industrial tracers use radiation to monitor the flow of fluids and the efficiency of industrial processes such as refining. The short-lived radioisotopes that are used present minimal risk to the environment. The tracer radioisotopes are mixed in with flowing or filtered materials to track their movement and identify leaks or blockages.

C. Gauges 

Gamma sources are used as gauges to monitor levels of a variety of solids, liquids, and gasses used in industry. They are advantageous in extremely hazardous environments where extremes of temperature or corrosive substances make the use of direct contact gauges impossible.

5. Medical radioisotopes from nuclear medicine

Radioactive waste is also generated by tertiary hospitals that have a nuclear medicine department. The following radioisotopes are used in diagnostic and therapeutic procedures:

• Technetium-99m (Tc-99m)
• Iodine-131(I-131)
• Carbon-14(C-14)
• Iodine-125 (I-125)
• Tritium (H-3) 
• Fluorine-18(F-18)

This medical application of radiation generates not only used isotopes, but also contaminated syringes, vials, needles, swabs, vials, and dressings. Clothing and items handled by patients that have received high doses of radioisotopes may also have to be disposed of as radioactive waste.

6. Milling and mining 

The mining and milling of uranium are important causes of radioactive pollution. Radioactive waste is generated in this industry via the following extraction methods:

• Open and closed-pit mining with the digging of soil and rocks out of open pits to extract uranium ore, known as carnotite.

• Leaching: a common and extremely polluting method that uses pumped chemicals to dissolve and extract uranium from rocks. The generated uranium-rich leachate is then processed to purify and extract uranium.

The waste generated from uranium mining is called tailings if it is solid and raffinates if it is liquid. This waste requires careful storage as it is some of the most hazardous waste.

In addition, the mining of any rock generates raised concentrations of radon gas that can cause lung cancer. To mitigate this radiation hazard, radon gas must be pumped out of mines, with some miners requiring breathing equipment to protect their lungs.

7. Improper radioactive waste disposal

Radioactive waste that has been improperly disposed of is an immediate environmental hazard. The disposal of radioactive waste is undertaken at secure specialist facilities that are regulated by the EPA, The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and  The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).

Standards regarding the disposal and long-term storage of radioactive waste are so stringent that incidents of improper disposal have been rare recently. In the early 20th century, significant radioactive pollution was caused by the inadvertent spread of radioisotopes by radium watch dial painters, miners, and scientists like Marie Curie.

A major concern remains the longevity of storage arrangements for radioactive materials due to materials such as plutonium and uranium remaining radioactive potential for thousands of years. Earthquakes, explosions, and improper documentation have been cited as causes of radioactive waste leakages.

What are the effects of nuclear waste and radioactive pollution?

Radiation pollution is harmful because of its pervasive effects on living things. Even physically small quantities of highly radioactive materials can deliver a dose of radiation that can kill. Solid, liquid, and gaseous radioactive substances contaminate the areas where they are present and, if uncontained, will disperse through the environment.

Here are the main effects of radiation:

Effects of ionizing radiation on human health

Ionizing radiation releases radiation that penetrates human tissues and can damage the genetic material within a cell’s nucleus. The severity of these effects depends on the radiation dose and exposure duration.

Acute effects of radioactive contamination

Exposure to large doses of radiation causes Acute Radiation Syndrome, also known as radiation sickness. The energy delivered can be large enough to cause visible reddening and burns, followed by nausea, vomiting, inflammation, bleeding of the mucous membranes, hair loss, and death. The dose of radiation delivered would have to exceed 18,000 chest X-rays.

Chronic and long-term effects of radiation pollution

Sustained or chronic exposure to raised radiation levels is a significant health risk. Even if the dose is low, the proximity to a source of ionizing radiation leads to cellular and DNA damage that raises the risk of developing cancer or infertility.

Chronic effects can be experienced through occupational exposure, living in an environment, or ingesting food contaminated with radioactive materials.

Effects of radiation pollution on wildlife

Wildlife that comes into contact with nuclear fallout or the radioactive discharges from nuclear disasters can be affected similarly to humans. Genetic damage to animals can lead to mutations, especially in rodents and other small, fast-multiplying creatures.

Dispersal of radioactive particulates on grass and other vegetation can lead to radioactive materials entering the food chain and becoming concentrated in humans and apex predators.

Effects of radioactive pollution on marine life

Radioactive pollution can also harm marine environments and be dispersed through water systems over wide distances. A serious consequence is that radioactive isotopes like iodine are absorbed by seaweeds and phytoplankton, entering the marine food chain and becoming concentrated in fish and seafood.

Currently, this is one of the major concerns of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant incident. Thousands of tons of radioactive water have been released into the Pacific Ocean, with a temporary fishing ban in waters off the northeastern coast of Japan.

Despite being diluted by massive volumes of ocean water, tuna caught off the U.S. West Coast were found to have raised levels of ¹³⁴Cs in their tissues.

Contaminated land

Nuclear incidents in a specific geographical area can render land unusable for decades. The soils, water, and vegetation become contaminated, leading to raised background levels of traditions that are unsafe for human habitation. Even where cleanup efforts have been successful, a geographical region may be associated with pollution and avoided by people.

Solutions for managing nuclear waste and radioactive pollution

There is no way in which radioactive pollution or waste can be physically cleaned or destroyed. Where there is contamination or a spill, ‘clean up’ efforts focus on stripping and containing contaminated materials, including buildings, vegetation, and soils. This makes careful management of radioactive waste essential. Here are the main principles:

• Careful planning: sites that handle radioactive materials use careful planning to minimize the amount of waste produced.

• Prompt processing of radioactive waste: waste is treated as soon as possible after it is generated to minimize the risk of dispersal of radioactive material. Processes are often automated, including decontamination, compacting, and solidifying radioactive waste.

• Containment of radioactive material: Nuclear waste requires specialist packaging in containers that will not allow the radiation to escape. Secure sealed containment must also be robust enough to withstand handling and transport to a storage facility.

• Reliable long-term storage: Certain radioisotopes have half-lives that can be hundreds of years. Without a safe means of disposal, most high-level radioactive waste has to be stored long-term or permanently in facilities that can be adequately sealed and secured.  Storage facilities may be located underground, taking advantage of natural rock as a barrier.

The management of radioactive waste depends on its type

The approach to managing radioactive waste varies according to whether it is high-level, intermediate-level, or low-level:

High-level nuclear waste

The most hazardous forms of nuclear waste are often liquids generated while processing spent fuel rods from nuclear reactors.

This toxic liquid undergoes vitrification, where it is mixed with crushed glass and heated to become a molten liquid. The high-level waste is then poured into 150-liter stainless steel canisters and moved for long-term storage.

Waste is usually stored on-site for several decades until it is deemed safe enough for longer-term storage, usually within several other containers in a dedicated deep geological facility called a repository.

Low-level nuclear waste

Low-level nuclear waste may be incinerated and compacted for storage in many repositories. After being encased in metal containers, low-level waste is stored in concrete-lined vaults and repositories that are carefully monitored.

Most low-level radioactive waste facilities have limits on radiation levels that can safely be accepted. Regulators and regional authorities set limits on the amount of low-level waste that can be stored in a specific area. Some very low-level radioactive waste may even be landfilled.

Recovery and reprocessing of nuclear materials

Nuclear materials can also be recovered from apparent waste for future use. Uranium and plutonium are valuable and so waste that is rich in these radioactive elements is routinely stored for future use.

Spent nuclear fuel is also reprocessed using dangerous chemical processes that separate the plutonium and uranium from used fuel rods. Though this potentially reduces demand for newly mined radioisotopes, it is a potentially hazardous and polluting procedure.

Rounding up

Nuclear radiation and radioactive pollution are serious environmental issues. The continued adoption of nuclear energy (with more than 400 power stations globally) means that the amount of waste generated and the potential for pollution will also continue to increase. 

Manufactured containment measures for radioactive material appear to be working well. Still, the potential for human error, natural disasters, or activity by malicious agents mean that everyone is at risk of the effects and environmental damage from this extremely dangerous type of pollution.

How? Because pollinators like bees, bats, and butterflies pollinate over 180,000 plant species and more than 1,200 crops. The first step of pollination happens when a pollen grain moves from the male part of a flower to the female part, and pollinators play a key role in this movement of pollen.

For this reason, protecting our bees has become a priority for environmentalists around the world. Harmful bee repellents that contain chemicals are not only damaging bee populations, they are also contributing to pollution. There is, however, a way to peacefully coexist with bees and pollinators without harming them: natural bee repellent.

In this guide, we’ll explore all you need to know about how effective natural bee repellent is, and how to create your own recipe at home.

Is it possible to keep bees away naturally?

Before turning to bee repellent methods, there are some key facts to know about bee behavior that can help you avoid attracting bees, whether you have an allergy or simply do not like bees buzzing around you while outside.

Ever notice that beekeepers wear white suits? This is because bees are aggressive towards dark, fuzzy objects. Be sure to wear light-colored clothing if you’re hoping to avoid bees.

You’ll also want to avoid wearing flowery scents or sweet-smelling soaps, hair products, or deodorant. These sweet smells will likely attract not only bees, but other insects to you.

The same goes for flowers in your yard – if you’re aiming to avoid bees, avoid planting sweet-smelling plants and flowers in your yard, as pollinators are attracted to them.

And why are bees so attracted to sweet scents? The short answer is sugar! Many bees feed on the nectar from flowers and plants, so the sugary beverage you’re drinking or sweet perfume you’re using will no doubt attract the attention of bees.

Bees eat nectar to feed their colony and to fuel their flight. In fact, bees can actually taste sugars: when in contact with food, their taste neurons are activated, signaling the presence of food.

If these methods of avoiding the attention of bees do not work for you, there are plenty of natural bee repellent methods that will discourage bees without harming them.

Looking to natural solutions is critical because bee populations are shrinking: pollution, disease, the misuse of chemicals, and changes in climatic patterns are all leading to shrinking and shifting pollinator populations.

We can all do our part to reduce the damage done to bee populations by opting for natural repellent methods. After all, cross-pollination helps at least 30% of the world’s crops and 90% of wild plants thrive, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council.

Do natural bee repellent methods actually work?

While some bee infestations may require professional help from a bee removal expert (not an exterminator!), in most cases, natural bee repellents are just as effective as those that utilize harmful chemicals.

Let’s explore some of the most effective substances for repelling bees.

Citronella

Citronella is one of the most effective natural bee repellents. Many insect repellent products contain citronella in the form of sprays and candles.

Citronella oil repels insects rather than killing them. Sensitive bees are deterred by strong smells, and they will particularly avoid areas infused with the scent of citronella.

You can purchase citronella oil and apply it to various areas around your yard or clothing, or light citronella candles while you’re outside to create a masking odor that bees and insects will avoid.

While citronella will not harm bees directly, it’s a super effective way to keep them from flying around certain areas of your yard or home.

Peppermint

In a similar way, the smell of peppermint will also repel bees from a certain area. The strong peppermint scent interferes with bees’ sensitive sense of smell, making this natural ingredient a great natural bee repellent.

To utilize peppermint at home, you can plant peppermint plants in your yard or dab peppermint essential oils on your body, clothing, or areas of your yard.

Cinnamon

The scent of cinnamon also encourages bees to relocate, and you most likely already have this ingredient in your home. 

If a hive of honey bees has decided to settle in your yard and you’d like them to move, try sprinkling cinnamon powder around their hive for about a week.

While the smell won’t hurt them, it is strong enough that it will overpower sweet-smelling flowers in the area and the colony of bees will most likely move on.

Distilled vinegar

Distilled vinegar is another item that you most likely already have in your home! An all-natural solution for green cleaning at home, vinegar has many uses. It’s no surprise that it can also help you keep bees away from swarming your home and yard.

One of the best ways to utilize vinegar as a natural bee repellent is to create a spray: combine equal parts vinegar and water, and then spray this solution in the vicinity of the beehive or around your yard. Be sure to check whether vinegar can damage your deck, patio, or furniture, however.

You can also fill small containers with vinegar – such as recycled cans or glass jars – and place them around your patio, yard, and windowsills.

Fresh cucumber

Cucumbers are also surprisingly effective at keeping bees away. However, just laying a whole cucumber in your yard will not really help; it’s actually the cucumber peel that bees and wasps dislike. This is because bees aren’t fond of the acidity of cucumber peels.

So, placing cucumber peels around your yard or home, on window sills, or other high places where rabbits cannot reach them is a great solution to keeping bees away naturally.

You can also cut up the peels and lay them on an aluminum pie dish for an extra-effective repellent: the ensuing chemical reaction will create a scent that bees can’t stand.

DIY natural bee repellent

To create a super effective bee repellent, you can also concoct your own solution at home. Various recipes combine these bee repelling ingredients that won’t harm people or wildlife in your yard.

How to make natural bee repellent at home

Want to save money and create a natural bee repellent that won’t harm your plants or other animals that occupy your yard? Let’s explore several methods to create your own bee-repelling solution at home. 

1. Create an essential oil-based spray

There are several bee repellent sprays that you can create using various essential oils. All you’ll need to create this spray is:

• A spray bottle
• Water
• 2-3 essential oils of your choice

Using the oils that most effectively repel the scent of bees is best for this recipe, so you can mix peppermint oil with other oils like lavender, cedarwood, or eucalyptus essential oil. Combined with water, spraying this mixture will not only smell good, but will also keep insects away from your home and yard without killing them.

Another way to increase the effectiveness of essential oil repellent is to combine your choice of oil with water and 2-3 teaspoons of liquid soap. The soap allows you to spray this solution on most household items.

After spraying this mixture, the water will evaporate and leave the essential oil scent behind as a natural repellent. However, keep in mind that you shouldn’t spray essential oil mixtures on your food or skin, but dabbing it on clothing is typically fine.

2. Add certain spices to your recipe

Adding spices to your essential oil-based repelling solution will make it more effective! To create this mixture, start with the same recipe as above: soap, water, and your choice of essential oils like peppermint or lavender.

Next, add ⅛ teaspoon of cinnamon and ⅛ teaspoon of cayenne pepper to the mixture. The strong scents of these smells will ensure that your mixture is strong enough to keep most bees away!

Spray your natural bee repellent around your deck, patio, doors, windows, and in the air in a certain area to keep bees away.

Note: don’t spray bees directly!

After creating your own natural bee repellent recipe, it’s important to know that you shouldn’t spray bees or wasps directly.

Wasps are particularly aggressive and may try to sting if provoked. To be safe, spray your surfaces and clothing, but only when safe to do so.

So, never spray your repellent directly at any wasps you see. If you discover a nest or you have a particularly bad infestation, be sure to seek professional help for removing bees or wasps from your property.

Give natural bee repellent a try

This warm season, rest assured that you’ll be able to keep bees away with these natural bee repellent solutions. Most of these repellents are cost-effective, and you may already have them at home.

In addition, these solutions won’t harm bees that are essential to our ecosystem, the animal food chain, and the growth of our food.

Follow these recipes or create your own mixture and you’ll be equipped with an affordable and green bee repellent this summer.

The United Nations has projected that this exponential population growth will continue: in 2030, the world’s population will likely reach 8.5 billion by 2050, 9.7 billion, and 10.4 billion by 2100.

Some experts say that since 1970, the world has been overpopulated. Overpopulation refers to the state in which the Earth cannot regenerate the resources used by the world’s population each year.

This nuanced trend has impacted everything from climate change to food resources worldwide. It’s critical to understand the factors enabling such rapid population growth and what we can do to curb the adverse effects of overpopulation.

In this guide, we’ll dive into all the overpopulation causes, effects, and solutions you need to know.

Is the world overpopulated?

The state of our Earth’s population has been fiercely debated for decades, with some deterrents stating that the concern of overpopulation is exaggerated. Many scientists state that human population growth will eventually end, and the United Nations also predicts that Earth’s population will not exceed 12 billion.

Regardless of which side you take in the debate, it’s true that a steadily expanding human population proposes immense challenges to all nations.

As The Overpopulation Project states, the Earth is overpopulated for two main reasons:

1. Humans are rapidly displacing wildlife species across the globe.
2. We are degrading ecosystems that provide essential, irreplaceable environmental services that future generations will need to live decent lives.

This reasoning is driven by the argument that Earth has never been equipped to house this many human beings. Today, we are not sharing Earth fairly with the millions of other plant, animal, and aquatic species that call it home.

Indeed, humans are consuming more natural resources than ever and encroaching on more and more natural habitats as the population has grown. It’s fair to assume that as the population keeps growing, so too will our damage to the Earth.

Only a few countries will make up over half the projected population increase by 2050: India, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Tanzania, the Philippines, and Egypt.

It’s important to understand that while population growth is highest in impoverished countries, consumption, carbon emissions, and resource use are far more significant in developed parts of the world. Thus, the environmental impact of each individual in wealthy countries is higher than in poorer countries.

What is causing overpopulation in the world today?

Now that we better understand the overpopulation debate and where population growth is occurring most rapidly worldwide, let’s examine the causes of this phenomenon.

Longer life expectancy

One of the most significant causes of overpopulation is what many would view as a positive development: the average life expectancy has continued to grow, and mortality rates worldwide have decreased in the last centuries.

Advances in modern medicine and increasing access to food and clean water are reasons life expectancy has continued to grow.

The World Health Organization (WHO) notes that global life expectancy at birth is expected to rise from 72.8 years in 2019 to 77.2 years in 2050. However, large gaps in this progress exist between the least developed countries and those that are more developed.

Death rates have also decreased: in 1973, the global mortality rate was 12.2 per 1,000 people, and in 2022, this rate decreased to 8.4 deaths per 1,000 people. While it’d normally be considered a positive trend, this increase in life expectancy means that the consumption footprint of each person also increases.

As people live longer and have children that, in turn, live longer, global demand for food and essential resources will continue to increase.

Underutilization of contraception and family planning

A 2019 study found that around half of the annual 21 million pregnancies in low- and middle-income countries in individuals aged 15-19 years were unintended.

They found that 8 million out of 9.5 million unintended pregnancies occurring annually in only twelve countries could have been prevented with modern methods of contraception.

These results illustrate the staggering effects of the lack of modern contraception on population growth. Underutilization of modern contraception occurs for a few reasons, including lack of access, fear of potential side effects, and lack of education on contraception and family planning.

Lack of access to contraceptives is an immense issue worldwide: around 1.2 million women live in a county without a single health center offering the full range of contraceptive methods.

A lack of adequate family planning also persists in many places. Family planning refers to the number of children a person wants to have. This right has been hindered in countries where there are gender or culturally-based barriers, a lack of access to adequate medical services, and where religious leaders reject the idea.

Better fertility treatment

Fertility treatment has become more advanced as medical care has improved globally, especially in wealthier countries where inhabitants can afford these treatments.

In the U.S., for example, more than 1 million babies have been born due to assisted reproductive technology since 1996. In fact, since 1978, the number of people conceived by reproductive technology has reached several million today and is rapidly approaching 0.1% of the total world population.

Over time, as more and more people utilize assisted reproductive technology, such as IVF, to grow their families, this portion of the population will continue to grow.

Migration and urban concentration

Today, cities worldwide are at the center of the overpopulation problem, and they’re continuing to grow.

These massive cities have been populated by migration and expansion for several reasons. People migrate from land damaged by climate disasters and flee social upheaval, conflict, and economic disparity.

While Tokyo and Delhi have experienced some of the highest economic growth in the world, these cities are not expected to grow much more. Instead, smaller cities in countries like India will continue to grow.

It’s projected that within 35 years, more than 100 cities will have populations larger than 5.5 million people. Where will these fast-growing cities be? By 2100, the world’s population centers are anticipated to shift to Asia and Africa.

What are the negative effects of overpopulation?

As more and more people are born, more food, clean water, energy, housing, healthcare, transportation, and energy are needed. This demand not only adds pressure to our already-strained resources but also increases the chance of conflict, large-scale disasters, and environmental degradation.

Let’s look a bit more closely at the negative effects of overpopulation.

Poverty and disease

Poverty is both a cause and effect of overpopulation. Social factors such as lack of education and reproductive care underlie both poverty and population growth, meaning that as long as these needs remain unmet, poverty and overpopulation will continue in a vicious cycle.

The UN projected that the total population of the world’s least developed countries is projected to rise from just over 1 billion people in 2020 to 1.76 billion in 2050. Overcrowding, especially in the most populous cities, leads to health issues caused by smog, pollution, and lack of access to sanitary personal and medical care.

In less developed countries with higher poverty rates, the mortality rate for children and adolescents is higher. In fact, scientists note that epidemics and pandemics are occurring at a more frequent rate and are being fueled by human overpopulation.

Ecological degradation

One of the most pressing effects of overpopulation is the damage our growing population is doing to our planet. Increasing global populations puts more pressure on our Earth’s resources, including our forests, water sources, and biodiversity.

As our cities become more populous and expand outward, we will continue to encroach on the habitats that animals rely on to survive. The increased use of natural resources, as well as added pollution and carbon emissions, will also ultimately exacerbate climate change and global warming.

However, experts also say that consumption is a large piece of the environmental puzzle. Consumption varies greatly between countries, and wealth plays a crucial role.

The UN reports that high-income and upper-middle-income countries contribute about 85% of global carbon dioxide emissions. Meanwhile, in these countries like the U.S. and Canada, fertility rates and the total population has continued to decrease.

Globally, the average carbon footprint is close to 4 tons, while the average carbon footprint for a person in the U.S. is 16 tons, one of the highest rates in the world. Thus, while birthrates fall in the U.S., each person’s impact is damaging our environment more.

Increased conflict

An additional negative impact of overpopulation is the increased occurrence of conflict. Most experts warn that overpopulation and a lack of resources will likely breed unrest and conflict.

A recent study found that population growth increased conflict related to natural resources in particular, especially in countries that are growing slower. The study found that the average population change caused roughly 4.2 additional years of full-blown civil war in the 1980s relative to the 1940s.

While the correlation between overpopulation and conflict is difficult to measure, it’s clear that when communities need to compete for natural resources, the chance of conflict is greater.

Child labor

When children are too young to work or are involved in work activities that compromise their physical, mental, social, and educational development, this is considered child labor.

While the dangers of child labor are clear, many families worldwide put their children to work for various reasons. The underlying causes and effects of overpopulation also contribute to increased child laborers, particularly poverty, lack of education, conflict, and natural disasters.

In the world’s least developed countries, slightly more than 1 in 4 children aged 5 to 17 are engaged in labor detrimental to their health and development.

When poverty levels are high, many families have no choice but to put their children to work. In this way, poverty exacerbates overpopulation because families need more children to contribute to the household. 

Tackling overpopulation: what are the solutions?

The negative effects of overpopulation are drastic and require multifaceted solutions that often go beyond the individual. Now that we understand the causes and effects of overpopulation let’s examine some of the main solutions to this issue.

Education

One large part of combating overpopulation is improving reproductive education around family planning and contraceptive use. As we’ve established, lack of family planning – especially in poorer countries – is one of the main drivers of overpopulation.

Empowering women and girls to understand their options regarding family planning is crucial. More family planning programs should be implemented, especially in communities with high infant mortality rates and birth rates.

As the U.S. Center for Disease Control outlines, some of the elements of a successful family planning program include contraceptives and reproductive health surveys that provide high-quality data on various reproductive health indicators.

Education on family planning, reproductive health, and greater access to schools typically lead women and children to have fewer children. Thus, education is a huge part of decreasing birth rates in especially overpopulated countries.

Sustainable economic growth

As we’ve established, population growth over the next few decades will be driven by the world’s poorest countries. Because poverty worsens overpopulation and vice versa, investing in less developed countries with international aid, fair trade, and global justice will all help bring poverty and population rates down. 

In addition, we should strive for a more equal distribution of resources and transition towards more renewable sources of energy and production in all areas of the world.

One way to do so includes investing in research, development, and innovation to develop better production methods, improving the efficiency of our food production, energy distribution, water access, and more.

Environmental policy

In addition to decreasing birth rates, addressing the consumption of the world’s worst climate offenders is essential. As we know, people in high-income countries tend to overconsume resources.

Enacting policies and incentives that benefit the environment, limit carbon emissions, and protect resources on a national level will help curb some of the negative effects of overpopulation.

While large corporations and the world’s wealthiest individuals are doing the most damage to the Earth, there are still things you can do to fight it. You can take steps in your life that help the environment, such as limiting your waste, using greener products, and adopting renewable energy sources.

Overpopulation causes, effects, and solutions wrap up

The overpopulation causes, effects, and solutions discussed in this guide are almost all interrelated. Various trends, such as poverty and climate change, serve as both causes and effects of overpopulation in many ways.

While there is no easy fix to these complex issues, looking at the whole picture of economic, social, and environmental factors is crucial when attempting to lessen the overpopulation problem.

The burgeoning fast fashion industry comes with a cost. People are wearing their clothes less and discarding them more quickly. The quality and durability of clothing are also down. This keeps the consumer trapped in a cycle of buying which satisfies clothing manufacturers but does massive environmental harm.

The sustainable fashion industry appears to be an alternative to the destructive cycle that is being perpetuated by fast fashion, but how do they compare? In this article, we deep dive into 14 differences between fast fashion vs sustainable fashion that will show you the extent of the crisis in fashion and the possible solutions.

What is fast fashion?

Fast fashion is clothing designed and manufactured to quickly and cheaply copy the latest trends. This type of mass-manufactured clothing is based on runway styles or celebrity outfits. It moves quickly from design through manufacture to stores to take maximum advantage of consumer interest and demand.

People can now purchase the latest looks or get a ‘fashion fix’ affordably. Speedy manufacturing processes and global shipping methods mean companies can continually turn out new collections. This fashion sector moves so quickly that new designs can be on sale multiple times per week.

Fast fashion has changed the way people shop for clothes

Over the last 30 years, how people shop for clothes has completely changed. Before the fast fashion revolution in the late 1990s, people would buy their clothes seasonally and wear them for longer. Clothing was more expensive, and shopping was a big event.

Fashion shows were originally a preview of upcoming clothing collections that would be retailed for months at a time. Fast fashion has changed consumer appetites increasing demand for new styles continuously and the instant gratification of being on trend. The rise of e-commerce has further accelerated these changes.

With fast fashion, quality is low on the list

Fast fashion has been developed to respond quickly to consumer demand with cost-efficient clothing. The priority is to provide fashionable clothing at a low cost, with little care for the quality or durability of the garments.

What is sustainable fashion?

Sustainable, ethical, or eco-fashion is a broad term that encompasses clothing production and distribution methods developed to reduce the environmental impact of clothing production, improve garment worker welfare and introduce social justice to the fashion industry. 

A key aim of sustainable fashion is to completely reform the lifecycle of clothing, from the materials used to manufacture clothes to what happens to clothing at the end of its usable life. This proactive approach to reducing the environmental impact of sustainable fashion has a noted positive impact on the pollution and waste that is notorious in the fashion industry.

Sustainability in fashion has been an issue since the 1960s environmentalism movements, which questioned the necessity of mass-manufacturing clothing and identified its polluting effects. Awareness and adoption of sustainable practices in fashion have been patchy due to the increased costs involved. 

Sustainable fashion has championed key innovations in textile recycling and reprocessing that are gradually being adopted by fast fashion manufacturers that want to improve their ‘green’ credentials. The exemplary practices of the sustainable fashion movement have not fully penetrated the fast fashion industry, which may need to be reformed using tariffs or standards.

14 differences between fast fashion vs sustainable fashion

Understanding the differences between the fast and sustainable fashion industries drives home the scale of the environmental impact of clothing. These two sectors within the fashion industry have massive differences that everyone should know about to make more informed choices about the clothes they wear.

1. Clothing industry size and scale

The global fast fashion market is worth more than $91 billion. Since 2016, it has experienced runaway growth sustaining a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of over 1.69%. By 2026 industry experts expect that the size of the fast fashion market may have almost doubled to more than $173 billion as adoption increases internationally.

In contrast, sustainable clothing has a much smaller market share. Analysts estimate the size of the ethical fashion market to be over $7.5 billion (2022). This market is also accelerating, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of over 6.5% since 2017. By 2027 the size of the sustainable fashion market is expected to still be modest relative to fast fashion at $11 billion+.

2. Clothing industry market drivers

Fast fashion has numerous drivers that have kept its market share large. These include:

• The growth of fast fashion and organized retail networks in emerging markets
• High penetration of social media and digital marketing into populations
• A rise in demand for sports and performance wear
• The rise of e-commerce
• Reductions in manufacturing costs due to globalization
• Urbanization
• A burgeoning young population in developing countries and emerging markets

Growth drivers for sustainable fashion have centered on social awareness and include:

• Increasing awareness of poor working conditions endured by workers to deliver fast fashion
• Awareness of the negative environmental impact of fast fashion
• Consumer demand for sustainable or ethical fashion
• Reductions in free trade and access to global markets
• Raw material shortages

3. Raw materials used

Fast fashion is a massive consumer of natural resources. Every year, 70 million barrels of oil go into producing synthetic fibers and fabrics for shiny, stretchy, and clingy fast fashion.

And it’s not only synthetics that are a problem. Fast fashion also places strain on global cotton availability.

The high turnover of these cheap clothes also consumes vast amounts of water and energy, in their continuous production, making this a very resource-expensive type of clothing over the long term.

In contrast, sustainable fashion reuses and repurposes existing textiles or uses demonstrably sustainable materials like hemp or bamboo linen. The sustainable fashion industry avoids the use of raw materials for fabric as much as possible. Investment goes into the advanced reprocessing of waste textiles, meaning using fewer raw materials.

4. Manufacturing methods

Fast fashion has been made possible by introducing automation and mass manufacturing of fabrics and garments. Fabrics are spun from oil-based synthetic fibers and woven into cheap fabrics.

By the time they are sewn into garments, these poor-quality fabrics have been bleached or dyed, treated with retardants and other chemicals, and printed. The prioritization of speed and low cost means that the assembly quality is poor, meaning that many items may even be discarded before they leave the manufacturing plant.

Sustainable clothing manufacturers take large volumes of discarded textiles that are shredded, respun, and woven into new fabrics. These recycled fabrics underpin sustainable clothing manufacture. Dyes, printing, and embellishments use eco-friendly materials.

5. Garment factory conditions

Fast fashion requires a supply chain developed for speed so that clothing manufacturers can rapidly respond to new trends. To achieve high volume, rapidly produced clothing cheaply, fashion firms may neglect ethical standards and use factories that have poor working conditions. Issues affecting workers in the garment industry include the sexual exploitation of women, child labor, and sweatshops.

Take a look inside the fast fashion industry:

The holistic approach of sustainable fashion is less intensive with greater concern for the welfare of workers. This usually makes clothing production more expensive and slower. Sustainable fashion consumers are concerned that garment trade workers are paid fair wages and have decent working conditions.

6. Chemical use

The textile industry uses a variety of hazardous chemicals and toxins that damage human health and the environment. These chemicals are used at every stage of processing and finishing fabrics and garments and include, bleaching agents, dyes, surfactants, and inks.

Examples of toxic chemicals routinely used in fast fashion include:

• Formaldehyde
• Quaternary ammonium compounds
• Oxy-ethylated polyamides
• Silica gel
• Disperse dyes
• Azo dyes
• Chlorinated flame retardants

Though these chemicals improve the look and feel of garments, they generate hazardous wastewater that can pollute drinking water and harm aquatic life. Many of these chemicals are allergens and aggravate conditions like asthma and eczema.

Some of these chemicals are also used in sustainable fashion production as garments are expected to meet legal standards of flame retardancy and achieve a wearable finish.

However, sustainable garments tend to use fabric processing compounds that are free from the most toxic chemicals and limit the impact of textile production on waterways and the wider environment. Quality standards such as Oeko-Tex® are used to assure consumers that harmful chemicals are not present in the garments.

7. Garment quality

One of the biggest differences between fast fashion and sustainable fashion is the quality and durability of the garments produced. They are not intended to last long as the fast fashion industry wants customers to buy new clothes repeatedly.

Fast fashion is designed to be low-cost and high turnover to satisfy the demands of fleeting trends. This means that companies cut costs on the quality of fabrics and their assembly leading to cheap clothes that do not wash or wear well and are soon discarded.

Sustainable fashion takes a different, less consumer-centric approach. Garment design and manufacture are far more considered, with a focus on increasing the longevity of clothes so that fewer raw materials are required long term. Sustainable fashion manufacturers and retailers may invest in novel recycled textiles, repurposed and recycled clothing, and better garment assembly to deliver a better quality, albeit more expensive, product.

8. Cost of clothing

The factors that determine the price a customer pays for an item of clothing include:

• Fabric costs
• The price of notions and embellishments like buttons and zippers
• Labor costs for making the garment
• Transport, logistics, and warehousing costs for completed garment orders
• Marketing and merchandising costs
• Manufacturer, supplier, and retailer profit

Fast fashion is designed to be cheap and accessible to the widest possible range of customers. At every stage of a fast, mass-produced fashion’s design, production, marketing, and retail, costs are kept as low as possible so that sales volumes can be maximized.

The fast fashion industry cannot entertain concepts like recycling or reprocessing textiles as they add cost to the business model. As long as it is cheaper to work with raw materials, this fast fashion will continue to consume them.

Sustainable clothing is currently more expensive than fast fashion, especially as its sales volumes are lower. Sustainable fashion costs more to produce, especially when a fair wage and ethical employment practices are implemented in factories. Reprocessing waste fabrics to make new materials is also expensive and energy intensive.

These costs are passed on to the customer who often makes a deliberate decision to buy sustainable clothing. However, the quality and durability of sustainable garments mean that consumers can avoid buying new garments repeatedly.

9. Waste

Just take a look at what is happening in Kenya and other parts of the world right now because of fast fashion:

Fast fashion generates huge waste. Consumers are saturated with an immense amount of choice, meaning that vast quantities of wearable clothing often go straight to waste. If garments go unused and unsold, they often end up in landfills or shipped abroad, where the poor quality of the garments means that they are quickly discarded.

According to Earth.org, 92 million tonnes of fabric waste is produced each year, with over $500 billion wasted due to underworn and discarded clothes. Every American discards at least 81.5 pounds (37 kilograms) of clothing annually. Waste textiles are a massive pollutant, choking waterways and releasing microplastics into seas.

The sustainable fashion movement has emerged, in part, due to the shocking levels of fast fashion waste. Innovative manufacturers actively recycle waste textiles to make better quality clothing that does not need to be discarded.

As consumers become more aware of the impact that their appetite for disposable clothing is having on the environment, many are optioning to purchase sustainable items.

10. Clothing product miles

The fashion industry is responsible for at least 10% of global CO₂ emissions, with each garment often clocking up many ‘product miles’ before it gets to the consumer. The supply chain for fashion is global with fabric and clothing routinely traveling by shipping or air freight, which are both highly polluting.

Some sustainable clothing is also transported using these methods, but designers and manufacturers within this sector have also explored minimizing the product miles of the clothing they produce by making garments locally.

In Western countries, this can add significantly to the cost of producing clothing especially compared to factories in Asia and Latin America, where fast fashion is mass-produced.

11. Recycling clothing

Despite being entirely possible, clothing recycling is not a part of the fast fashion business model. Fast fashion retailers’ singular concern is selling as many products as possible, with little care for where it ends up long-term.

The marketing of this type of clothing is focused on its appearance and how you’ll feel wearing it with little mention of its quality or sustainability. Though marketing channels could be used to promote clothing recycling, it is not part of the lifespan of a fast fashion garment.

Sustainable fashion has championed and advanced textile reprocessing and recycling since its inception. This jeans factory in Pakistan is a great example:

Textile recycling methods that this sector has championed have begun to be adopted by mainstream clothing brands. For example, H&M, a fast fashion retailer, has invested in its textile recycling machines to create sustainable clothing for sale in its stores:

12. Repairs and alterations

Fast fashion is cheaply made and not designed for repairs or alteration. A fast fashion garment’s materials and fabrication quality are already low when purchased, meaning that the garment fails quickly after sustained washing and wear. Throwing damaged clothing, shoes, and accessories in the bin is often cheaper than paying for a professional repair.

Sustainable fashion seeks to be part of a circular economy, where the longevity of garments can be maximized by incentivizing repair. Clothing companies and retailers transitioning to becoming more sustainable have introduced alteration and repair services for the garments they sell to encourage people to wear their clothes for longer. Levis is a great example:

13. Brands and retailers

Fast fashion is big business, and international brands are profiting from churning out massive volumes of cheap clothing, which is then shipped worldwide. Many customers need to be made aware of the provenance and environmental impact of their clothing, which limits their inclination and opportunity to make a sustainable choice.

Examples of fast fashion international brands include:

• Shein
• BooHoo
• Uniqlo
• Primark
• Victoria’s Secret
• GAP
• Zara
• Fashion Nova
• H&M

Sustainable fashion brands are more niche. Their smaller market share means that customers consciously decide to purchase them, often because they seek a more sustainable lifestyle.

Examples of sustainable fashion brands with global reach include:

• Stella McCartney
• Patagonia
• Craghoppers
• Levis
• PACT
• Everlane
• thredUP

For more examples of sustainable fashion brands, check out our round-up reviews of the best sustainable swimwear, sustainable pajamas, and sustainable slippers.

14. Sustainability

Fast fashion simply is not sustainable long-term. It is a massive polluter of the environment, consumers, and natural resources and a sustainer of unethical labor practices worldwide. In many parts of the world, especially countries that are heavily polluted by textile waste, people are seeking for fast fashion companies to take responsibility for the massive amounts of waste and pollution they are generating.

The sustainable fashion industry could be better, but using recycled textiles, opting for eco-friendly dyes, and producing better quality garments is rapidly progressing towards a sustainable, circular economy.

Rounding up

People care about the environmental impact of fashion, but it isn’t always the first thing that comes to mind when you want to look good. For far too long, the fast fashion industry has gotten away with producing cheap disposable clothing without bearing the costs of the environmental problems they are generating.

Sustainable fashion is gradually becoming more widely adopted, but fast fashion companies need to be disincentivized from squandering natural resources on what is essential clothing waste. Some fast fashion companies, like H&M, are beginning to step up to their responsibilities and demonstrate that fast fashion can treat the Earth (and their customers) much better.

Despite the role that forests play in our planet’s ecosystems, we continue to lose more and more forest cover every year.

As little as 10,000 years ago, 71% of the Earth’s surface was covered by forests, shrubs, and wild grasslands. Only around 38% of this greenery still exists today, and it’s estimated that 10 million hectares of forest are cut down each year.

The main culprit for these tremendous losses? Deforestation; the clearing of forested land. Forests are cleared to make space for urbanization, agricultural processes, and to obtain wood for fuel, manufacturing, and construction purposes.

To better understand the devastating impacts and potential steps forward, this article will fully examine the causes, effects, and solutions to deforestation.

What are the main causes of deforestation?

Though most forests are cleared to make room for agricultural expansion, some of the other main causes of deforestation might surprise you.

1. Agricultural expansion

Agricultural activities are responsible for at least 80% of tropical rainforest deforestation. Whether local subsistence farmers or large-scale commercial agricultural operations, forests are being cleared around the world to keep up with soaring human populations.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, large-scale commercial agriculture – primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm – accounted for 40% of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33%.

In more recent years, Earth lost about 4.2 million hectares of humid tropical primary forest, an area about the size of the Netherlands. Nearly half of this loss was due to food production, mostly of commodity crops.

Ecologists warn that this commodity-driven deforestation is permanently changing the landscape: these areas will most likely never be forests again, as opposed to forests cleared by wildfires and forestry management (that grow back over time).

Our forests are home to valuable nutrients, but when they are cleared for agriculture, these nutrients are lost and farmers cannot benefit from them. 

Forests are also cleared for cattle ranching: around 80% of deforestation occurs to make space for cattle to graze. When this land is cleared, it’s unlikely it will be a forest again.

2. Climate change

Climate change is considered both a cause and effect of deforestation. 

It’s widely accepted that climate change is causing more and more extreme weather events and abnormal temperatures, which increase the chances of drought, wildfires, and flooding.

These extreme weather events severely damage forests, and they are only getting more severe as climate change worsens. Climate change will continue as deforestation does, as lost forests release more and more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

In addition, there is much more carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere than existing forests can successfully absorb.

3. Logging

Despite our increasingly digitized world, we still rely heavily on wood for paper, firewood, and a plethora of household furniture and products. Trees are cut down to produce these items, as well as to build commercial and residential structures.

While it is possible to harvest timber sustainably, illegal logging activities usually don’t follow these techniques. Illegal logging has become a huge cause of deforestation, as more and more individuals cut down trees illegally to support themselves financially.

Between August 2003 and 2004, an area of 26,130 square kilometers – around the size of Belgium – in the Amazon rainforest was destroyed, most of it illegally. Today, it is estimated that around 60-80% of logging in the Amazon is illegal.

The U.S. Agency of International Development estimates that the illegal timber industry is worth $51-152 billion each year. This massive operation not only damages our environment but also prevents local communities from legally benefitting from forests for food and economic security.

4. Mining

Mining extraction and processing efforts around the world indirectly and directly damage almost all areas of the environment, and forests are no exception. The construction, operation, maintenance, and extraction of raw materials from the Earth requires the clearing of large amounts of land.

In a 2022 study, it was found that 3,264 square kilometers or 326,400 hectares of forest was directly lost due to industrial mining, with 80% occurring in only four countries: Indonesia, Brazil, Ghana, and Suriname.

Mining caused indirect forest loss in two-thirds of the countries investigated in the study. The building of infrastructure for mineral processing, storage, and transportation is one of the ways that mining indirectly causes deforestation.

The long-term impacts of mining on the Earth’s forests is unknown, but as long as the global population continues to expand, the demand for mineral resources will continue to rise. And, unless deforestation solutions are implemented, our forests and environment will continue to pay the price.

5. Urbanization and population growth

The global human population is projected to reach 9.7 billion in 2050, and potentially peak at nearly 10.4 billion in the mid-2080s. Today, 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, and this proportion is expected to rise to 68% by 2050.

This rapid growth has negative implications for all areas of our environment, from increased air and water pollution to the destruction of our forests to grow food and produce resources. Forests are also cleared to make room for urban development and growing cities.

Global demand for food and resources leads to increasing deforestation rates. 

Even in areas where the population is low, external forces such as demand for timber or cattle in other parts of the country or world can lead to deforestation in these areas.

Deforestation is also not exclusive to undeveloped countries: an individual in an industrialized country is likely to consume 60 times more of the world’s resources than an individual in a less industrialized nation.

Addressing this particular cause of deforestation is a complex undertaking because many areas around the world are continuing to expand and industrialize.

What are the harmful effects of deforestation?

Deforestation harms our planet in several ways. From environmental to social and economic impacts, we are already seeing the consequences of the loss of our Earth’s forests.

1. Climate change

The loss of forests around the world is fuelling the ever-growing climate crisis in indirect and direct ways.

Trees act as filters for the water we drink and the air we breathe, meaning that the less trees cover the Earth, the more susceptible our resources are to pollution.

As a by-product of photosynthesis, oxygen is produced and released by trees. It’s estimated that one large tree can provide a day’s supply of oxygen for up to four people.

In one year, a mature tree will absorb more than 48 pounds of harmful carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and release oxygen in exchange.

Trees help protect water quality by capturing, storing, and using rainfall. Trees reduce the amount of runoff that carries pollution off of the landscape and into nearby rivers and lakes. This process also decreases the rate and volume of stormwater flowing through local storm sewers.

With the loss of our nutrient-rich forests, air and water pollution are causing more harm to our communities.

2. Loss of biodiversity

Forests are home to more than three-quarters of the world’s life on land, meaning that they are incredibly biodiverse. Biodiversity is essential to all life on Earth: without a wide range of animals, plants and microorganisms, our interconnected ecosystem cannot continue to provide us with the air and food we all require.

Forest biological diversity refers to all forms of life within forested areas and the ecological roles they perform. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, forests contain:

• 60,000 different tree species
• 80% of the world’s amphibian species
• 75% of the world’s bird species
• 68% of the world’s mammal species

When forest ecosystems are damaged, these species are all put at risk. Animals are forced to flee and seek new habitats that may not be best suited for them, and plant species become more and more endangered. Today, more than 1,400 tree species are critically endangered and in urgent need of conservation action.

Deforestation critically threatens that plant and animal species, and in turn, us as humans, that rely on forest ecosystems to provide critical biodiversity for our entire planet.

3. Soil erosion and desertification

Clearing forests and other vegetation causes soil erosion, which is when soil is removed or eroded from its original position. Deforestation leads to increased soil erosion because when trees and plants are removed, their roots no longer hold the earth in place, leaving the underlying soil vulnerable to water and wind.

When soil is covered with vegetation, its organic matter is continually being replenished as leaves, fruits, and animal droppings fall to the ground and are broken down by microorganisms. In the absence of trees, soil composition is changed over time and made even more vulnerable to erosion as its organic matter is depleted.

Deforestation also plays a part in an advanced form of land degradation known as desertification. Desertification occurs when the biological state of land is destroyed or greatly damaged, resulting in desert-like conditions that make it difficult to support life.

The expansion of agricultural lands, deforestation, and overgrazing of animals on land can lead to desertification. These activities negatively affect soil’s ability to retain water and nutrients.

Thus, deforestation renders our soil more susceptible to damage that makes our land less able to support vegetation and crops and leads to increased water pollution.

4. Social and economic disparity

Aside from permanently damaging the landscape of our planet, deforestation impacts human livelihoods and wellbeing.

Communities that reside in forests rely directly on the biodiversity of forests to support themselves, whether using products derived from the forest for food, shelter, energy, medicine, and income. Wood and other forest products provide an estimated 20% of income for rural households in developing countries with access to forests.

Deforestation poses a threat to the livelihoods of millions of people, as forests are clearly interconnected with social and economic activities in both developing and developed nations. The continued loss of forests puts millions of people in jeopardy.

What are the solutions to deforestation?

Though the effects of deforestation are incredibly dire, there are several actions that both individuals and corporations, agencies, and governments can take to preserve the health of our world’s forests.

1. Sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agricultural practices are helping combat the alarming rates of deforestation caused by agriculture around the world and helping restore the productivity of degraded lands.

Agroforestry is one example of such practice: agroforestry is the intentional integration of trees and shrubs into crop and animal farming systems. Integrating trees with crop and animal farming leads to several benefits:

• Trees planted on farms can help connect forest fragments, benefitting migratory animal species.
• Shady trees can help improve the health of soil.
• A canopy of trees regulates the temperature and humidity of crops.
• Fruit-bearing trees can provide extra sources of income for farmers.

In the U.S., there are five widely recognized categories of agroforestry:

• forest farming
• alley cropping
• silvopasture
• riparian forest buffers
• windbreaks

These methods all aim to produce more sustainable animal and crop farming operations.

Integrating trees with farming is a more sustainable alternative to razing forests for agricultural lands. By opting for more sustainable agricultural practices, farmers don’t need to jeopardize the state of our forests.

2. Reforestation

Reforestation is the process of planting new trees in a previously-forested area that has been deforested or destroyed by natural disasters like wildfires, drought, and disease.

As the U.S. Forest Service explains, reforestation requires complex land management decisions that ensure the efforts take place at the right time and with the right tree species for a given area.

This solution can be implemented by planning for the natural regeneration of a forest, or by planting trees, saplings, or seeds. Accelerating the development of forests on deforested land is critical to protecting our communities, soil, and resources for years to come. 

3. Making more sustainable choices

Although many solutions to deforestation involve government agencies and corporations, there are several steps that individuals can take to help combat the loss of our precious forested ecosystems.

Here are just some of the ways you can help combat deforestation rates around the world:

• Adopting healthier diets and consuming less meat.
• Recycling and reusing discarded material to reduce the demand for raw wood materials.
• Purchase certified sustainably sourced wood products and avoid buying tree-sourced products altogether.
• Plant native species of trees.
• Educate yourself and others on deforestation.
• Support forest conservation organizations such as the Rainforest Action Network, the World Wildlife Fund, The Sierra Club, and others.  

Over time, these greener choices will help make a difference in the harmful effects of deforestation.  

4. Laws and regulations

Organizations are calling for stricter and more expansive regulations that require companies to source timber sustainably and crack down on illegal logging operations. Significant investment can also incentivize farmers to adopt more sustainable farming practices.

Illegal logging, one of the main causes of deforestation around the world, is oftentimes a result of weak governance and corruption in countries that produce timber. Consumer countries have also failed to ban the import of illegally-logged timber, allowing for continued damage to be done to our forests.

In 2022, the European Union passed a law that requires companies to ensure that a series of products sold in the EU do not come from deforested land anywhere in the world. While this type of legislative action discourages companies from buying illegally-logged timber or supporting deforestation efforts, more concrete action must be taken.

5. Protecting the forests we have

Overall, the best solution to deforestation is to halt or greatly reduce the destruction of forests around the world. 

Forest conservation also plays a crucial role in combating deforestation. Conservation efforts in forests aim to preserve all natural resources found within a forest and the benefits derived from forests, as well as plant and maintain newly-forested areas.

Forest conservation efforts are complex and differ depending on the forest. Protecting an existing forest from illegal logging may be all that is required in some cases, whereas vulnerable newly-planted forests need to be protected against changing weather and climate conditions.

When extracted, timber should be sourced from well-managed forests and organizations like The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). The FSC is a world leader in sustainable forest management and operates the most rigorous and trusted forest certification system that ensures forests are managed sustainably.

Wrap up on the causes, effects, and solutions to deforestation

Forests are not only some of the most biologically diverse ecosystems on our planet, they also are interconnected with our communities, atmosphere, and waterways in critical ways.

Now that we’ve examined the causes, effects, and solutions to deforestation, it’s clear that to destroy our forests means putting plant and animal species at risk and causing economic disparity among the people that rely on forests for their survival.

However, you can do your part by advocating for our Earth’s forests and continuing to understand the complex issue of deforestation.

CFC substitutes, not as destructive as the original chlorofluorocarbons, and similar chemicals known as halons continue to wreak stratospheric havoc even today, more than thirty years after the Montreal Protocol. Meanwhile, the amount of yet another significant ozone layer depleter, nitrous oxide, is increasing rapidly in the skies.

In this article, find out everything you need to know about the top 3 causes and effects of ozone layer depletion. Fortunately, solutions exist to the problem of stratospheric ozone destruction. Learn how you can help rebuild the life-sustaining ozone layer and keep it intact.

What is the ozone layer?

Just two pennies thick (0.12 in.) and encircling the Earth at approximately 10-12 miles above it, the ozone layer, also called the ozonosphere, straddles the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere in Earth’s atmosphere. It acts as a dynamic filter for the ultraviolet (UV) radiation streaming from the sun.

Approximately half of less harmful, longer-wavelength UV-A rays get a pass. But almost all harmful, shorter-wavelength UV-B and UV-C rays get blocked.

Here’s a diagram that shows where the ozone layer is in the atmosphere in relation to the Earth:

The ozone layer makes life on Earth possible. As science historian Dorothy Fisk said in 1934, the ozone layer is “all that stands between us and speedy death.” The ozone layer is normally thinner at the equator and thicker at the North and South Poles.

When ozone exists in the stratosphere, it offers protection to all life forms on Earth. By contrast, ground-level ozone in smog, spewn by cars, trucks, factories, and power plants, obstructs normal breathing and is associated with higher risk for developing respiratory conditions including asthma.

Named for one of the chemicals that comprises it, the ozone layer contains ozone, a highly reactive (unstable) molecule composed of three oxygen atoms. The chemical formula for ozone is O₃.

First completely described by the British geophysicist Sydney Chapman in 1931, stratospheric ozone exists in a steady state of equilibrium with its diatomic cousin, O₂, containing only two oxygen atoms. This is the form of oxygen that humans breathe.

According to Chapman, the O₃-O₂ conversion constantly makes and remakes the ozone layer, in a dynamic exchange. Originally on Earth, billions of years before humans appeared, microscopic plants in the ocean produced oxygen (O₂) during photosynthesis.

Eventually, the oxygen traveled out into the atmosphere. Once in the stratosphere, short-wavelength UV radiation split the molecules, releasing oxygen free radicals. The oxygen radicals possess the sun’s high energy. Being so unstable, the oxygen radicals react with other O₂ molecules, forming ozone.

In turn, when ozone is struck by UV radiation, it liberates a stable diatomic molecule (O₂) and an oxygen free radical (O) in a process called photodissociation. As an energized radical, O quickly reacts with a nearby O₂ molecule, forming a new ozone molecule. Then when the sun’s rays strike the newly formed O₃, the entire process repeats.

These chain reactions happen continuously in the ozone layer (more appropriately called the O₃-O₂ layer). The global exchange between O₃ and O₂ in the ozone layer is approximately 300 million tons per day.

Here is a schematic that shows the chemical reactions between O₃ and O₂. (Note: The numerical subscripts indicate the number of atoms present in the molecule. When there is no subscript, there is just one atom.)

Besides the ability to block UV radiation, the ozone layer serves another critical function for the Earth. The pressure it exerts allows it to operate like a tight-fitting seal above the troposphere (the atmospheric layer closest to the Earth’s surface). In this capacity, the ozone layer affects Earth’s weather patterns and heat cycles.

Top 3 causes of ozone layer depletion

Ozone layer depletion refers to the situation during the O₂-O₃ inter-conversion in the stratospheric ozone layer (described in the preceding section) when the destruction of O₃ exceeds the creation of O₃. In other words, there is a net loss of ozone in favor of the formation of more O₂.

Until the 1970s, people believed the ozone layer couldn’t be affected by other chemicals. This turned out to be false, as the ozone hole attests (see below).

In the ‘70s, scientists began to investigate how other chemicals could disrupt the delicate balance of chemical reactions in the stratosphere. They were surprised that ozone layer depletion could occur. Once scientists began publicly announcing their discoveries, it set off alarms.

Spurred on by citizens’ panic, some governments placed restrictions on the production and use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), believed to be the major culprits in ozone layer depletion. Others called for more study before taking action, leading to further research into the ozone layer.

Decades of research resulted in conclusive evidence that chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxides, and halogens were the top 3 causes of ozone depletion.

1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) is the name given to a broad class of chemical compounds used as refrigerants containing just three elements: chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. Thomas Ridgley, Jr., a mechanical engineer, and his assistant, chemist Albert L. Henne, invented many of the first-generation CFCs in 1928. They called them Freon.

Similar compounds called hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) were invented later.

In 1974, chemists F. Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina published a landmark paper in the distinguished journal, Nature. They announced their discovery that typically nonreactive CFCs, after spending decades in the troposphere close to the Earth, eventually are carried up into the stratosphere by atmospheric winds.

Like ozone, CFC molecules photodissociate upon being hit by solar ultraviolet radiation. But in this case, chlorine atoms, noted by their chemical symbol, Cl, are freed.

Encountering oxygen free radicals, present from O₃ photodissociation as explained in the previous section, chlorine reacts with them, forming chlorine monoxide (ClO). In the process, the chlorine atoms bind up oxygen free radicals. This prevents them from reforming ozone.

To make matters worse, one molecule of ClO reacts with a second oxygen radical. Diatomic oxygen (O₂) forms in a reaction that absorbs no UV light, leaving chlorine-free to react with yet another oxygen radical.

In other words, it’s as if chlorine hijacks oxygen free radicals, disrupting the normal O₂-O₃ equilibrium necessary to keep the ozone layer intact. While this is happening, solar radiation streams past, heading to Earth.

Here is a schematic that illustrates what is happening to ozone when it encounters a CFC molecule in the stratosphere:

In the stratosphere, the catalytic chain reaction involving chlorine occurs over and over until chlorine eventually encounters a methane or nitrogen dioxide molecule. They react, forming stable, heavier compounds that eventually fall back to the troposphere and land on Earth.

But the damage to the ozone layer has already been done by rogue chlorine from CFCs. In its stratospheric sojourn, a single chlorine atom destroys 100,000 or more ozone molecules. Expressed in another way, one pound of CFCs can destroy 70,000 lbs. of ozone.

Given the million or more tons of CFCs produced every year, Rowland and Marino initially predicted 20-40% of ozone layer depletion was likely if all of the CFCs made it to the stratosphere. At the time of their research, 70% of CFCs were used in aerosol spray cans for all sorts of products such as cooking spray, hair spray, and deodorant. With each spray, you’d release CFCs into the air. So most of them would eventually reach the stratosphere.

Currently, most aerosol sprays do not use CFCs. There are several alternatives including hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and carbon dioxide. Today, the major use of CFCs and related compounds like HFCs is in refrigerants and air conditioners. It is also used to fluff up foam and clean electronic parts.

What is the ozone hole?

The ozone hole over Antarctica in the Southern Hemisphere is not really a hole. Rather, it is an area of the stratosphere where the ozone layer has thinned considerably, allowing harmful UV radiation to reach the Earth. It begins to enlarge near the beginning of Antarctica’s spring of every year as explained below.

A similar event occurs in the Arctic, but not as dramatic. 1980s measurements revealed a 40% depletion in the ozone layer in September (the end of the Antarctic winter).

Joseph Farman at the British Antarctic Survey first observed a drastic reduction of ozone in 1981 compared to all the data he had collected since 1956. Skeptical of their veracity, he hid the data, which repeated in the following four years. Finally, in 1985, he published his measurements and shocked the world.

In 2022, the Antarctic ozone hole was approximately 9 million square miles, slightly smaller than in 2021. For comparison, that is more than twice the area of the continental U.S. The ozone hole peaked in size in 2006. Scientists state that the Montreal Protocol, the only international treaty signed by all countries, is responsible for the reduction in the size of the ozone hole. 

Here is an image of it:

The ozone hole appears due to the chlorine chemistry during the frigid polar vortex that settles over Antarctica during its winter. But how does chlorine get to the remote Antarctic?

As described in the preceding section on CFCs, chlorine atoms break away from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the presence of stratospheric UV radiation. They later attach to oxygen free radicals, leading to ozone layer depletion, in a catalytic chain reaction.

However, chlorine atoms do not immediately cause ozone depletion once they arrive in the stratosphere. In fact, the freed chlorine atoms usually become part of two other chemicals and remain in the stratosphere for some time in those relatively stable forms. These chemicals are hydrochloric acid (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (ClNO₃).

However, in the winter over Antarctica, polar stratospheric clouds form within the whirlpooling winds of frigid air in the polar vortex centered over the South Pole. Under these extraordinary conditions, HCl and ClNO₃ react. One of the major products formed is chlorine gas (Cl₂).

When spring arrives in the Antarctic, the sun’s UV radiation breaks Cl₂ gas molecules apart, liberating chlorine atoms. It is these free chlorine atoms (along with bromine, another halogen) that interfere with the O₂-O₃ equilibrium and deplete the ozone layer. Up to 2-3% of the ozone layer can be destroyed per day by this process.

Here’s a flow diagram that illustrates the entire pathway of ozone depletion caused by the halogens, chlorine, and bromine:

Has the Montreal Protocol fixed the ozone hole?

Although the Montreal Protocol and its amendments, including the most recent Kigali Amendment added in 2016 banning hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) production go far in abolishing the manufacture of ozone layer depleters, much work remains to be done to eradicate all chemicals and practices that deplete the ozone layer.

The Protocol allows the continued use of existing CFCs and does not mandate their removal or destruction. So, in 1995, the year before US production was to end, a multi-million dollar CFC black market emerged. It continues to this day and now includes HFCs.

Further, slow phaseouts of chemicals and rule exemptions slow down the reversal of ozone layer depletion. Additionally, there are some companies illegally producing some of the most ozone-destructive CFCs in recent years. Constant surveillance and enforcement are essential. If this doesn’t happen, the ozone hole could begin to enlarge again.

Furthermore, since ozone-depleting nitrous oxides (see below) are not regulated by the Montreal Protocol, their escalating use could cause further destruction of the ozone layer well into the 21st century and beyond.

2. Nitrous oxides

In 1970, atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen studied nitrous oxide (N₂O) in the stratosphere. There, the sun’s radiation splits it into nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).

Further, in a series of catalytic chain reactions, NO and NO₂ interfere with the O₂-O₃ equilibrium of the ozone layer in the stratosphere, blocking ozone formation. As a result, there is ozone layer depletion.

Here is a schematic showing these reactions:

The major source of stratospheric nitrous oxide is agriculture, especially fertilized soil and livestock manure. (It’s also used in dental offices as laughing gas.)

Unlike CFCs, nitrous oxides aren’t regulated by an international agreement. So, scientists A.R. Ravishankara, J.S. Daniel, and Robert W. Portmann of NOAA’s Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) concluded that, left unregulated, nitrous oxide will become the leading chemical depleting the ozone layer in the 21st century. In fact, nitrous oxide emissions are twice as high as CFC emissions today.

Catalytic chain reactions in ozone layer depletion

In working on nitrous oxide chemistry, Crutzen elucidated the general series of chemical reactions that result in ozone layer depletion.

In this article, we describe how chlorine monoxide, bromine monoxide, and nitric oxide serve as the catalysts for ozone destruction in the presence of short-wavelength UV radiation. A fourth catalyst, the hydroxyl radical (OH), produced in polar stratospheric clouds, is believed to play a key role in the formation of the other radicals and in ozone layer depletion.

All catalysts share one major thing in common: they are neither consumed or destroyed in a chemical reaction. Thus, a single catalyst is free to repeat the chain reactions hundreds of thousands of times, resulting in a net loss of stratospheric ozone. This is how ozone depletion occurs. (Note: A catalyst is noted by “R” in the following reaction series from ChemTube3D.) 

R + O₃ → RO + O₂

RO + O → O₂ + R

RO + O₃ → R + 2O₂

Net Reaction (in UV light): 2 O₃ → 3 O₂

Source: ChemTube3D

Crutzen, along with Rowland and Morina mentioned in the preceding section, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on stratospheric ozone chemistry and the discovery of the ozone-depleting properties of CFCs and nitrous oxide in 1995.

When announcing the winners, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences stated:

“Even though ozone occurs in such small quantities, it plays an exceptionally fundamental part in life on earth. This is because ozone, together with ordinary molecular oxygen (O₂), is able to absorb the major part of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation and therefore prevent this dangerous radiation from reaching the surface. Without a protective ozone layer in the atmosphere, animals and plants could not exist, at least not upon land.”

3. Halons (bromocarbons)

Halons are molecules containing bromine and carbon. Bromine is a member of the chemical family known as halogens, along with fluorine and chlorine.

Since chlorine atoms in chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are rapid ozone depleters, you might think that bromine atoms from halons would have the same destructive effect on ozone. Actually, bromine is far worse as an ozone depleter. In fact, one pound of a common halon, called 1211, can destroy 25 tons of ozone.

In the atmosphere, bromine commonly exists in the stable forms of hydrogen bromide (HBr) and bromine nitrate (BrONO₂). However, when exposed to UV radiation, they break apart. Like free chlorine reacts with an oxygen radical to form the highly reactive ClO that causes a net loss of ozone, free bromine atoms do the same thing as BrO. Bromine atoms are 40 to 100 times as effective as chlorine at depleting ozone.

Here are reactions involving both chlorine and bromine showing how ozone is depleted and diatomic oxygen (O₂) is formed. These coupled reactions are responsible for 30-40% of ozone layer depletion in the Antarctic.

Human-made products release up to 60% of all halons in the stratosphere. The use of methyl bromide fumigants and halon fire extinguishers are the major ways bromocarbons cause ozone layer depletion. Halons are regulated under the Montreal Protocol.

Top 3 effects of ozone layer depletion

Ozone layer depletion adversely affects humans, wildlife, marine ecosystems, plants, insects, and agriculture. When the ozone layer is thinned, more harmful UV-B radiation arrives to the Earth’s surface. Furthermore, research in 2007 suggested that more deleterious UV-C radiation, commonly believed to be blocked completely by the ozone layer, was also hitting Earth’s surface. Since then, other scientists have corroborated this conclusion.

1. Human health effects

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the four major human health effects from ultraviolet radiation exposure are:

• Skin cancer: As the most common form of cancer, skin cancer affects 20% of people living in the United States. It is also easily preventable. Using sunscreen or avoiding the sun are proactive measures you can take to protect yourself from this carcinogen.

• Premature aging and other skin problems: Up to 90% of all skin changes attributable to aging are actually caused by the sun. UV radiation from the sun causes thick, wrinkled, and leathery skin. A common skin growth called actinic keratosis is a pre-cancer that could develop into full-blown cancer if not removed.

• Cataracts and other eye damage: UV radiation increases the likelihood that you’ll develop cloudy lenses (cataracts) that may lead to blindness if left untreated. Other eye damage includes pterygium (vision-blocking growth of tissue) and macular degeneration. To avoid these problems, wear sunglasses with 100% UV-A and UV-B protection.

• Immune system suppression: Although sunlight stimulates the production of vitamin D in the skin, believed to boost immunity, UV-B radiation is known to suppress the immune system. As a result, skin infections and cancer are more likely to occur.

2. Ocean ecosystem effects

Microscopic marine plants called phytoplankton are the foundation on which all marine food webs depend. Their populations are reduced by UV-B exposure. Consequently, there will be reduced fish stocks. Humans who rely on fish as their major source of protein and/or livelihood will experience malnutrition or economic hardship.

Phytoplankton researchers estimated that a 16% reduction in the ozone layer could result in a 5% die off of phytoplankton. Although 5% may not seem significant, this equals a loss of approximately 7 million tons of fish per year.

UV-B radiation also negatively affects ocean productivity in other ways. For example, photosynthesis by red, brown, and green benthic algae is significantly reduced by solar radiation. Since marine photosynthesis is responsible for producing more than half of the oxygen that humans breathe, ozone depletion is a real concern when it comes to human survival.

As previously mentioned in the section on the ozone hole, early spring is when the ozone layer is the thinnest. This happens to be the time when the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crabs, amphibians, and other animals occur. During these critical stages, organisms are highly sensitive to adverse environmental effects. UV-B radiation exposure interrupts normal development as well as the reproductive capacity of adults, resulting in greater mortality and smaller offspring.

3. Agricultural losses

Plants are adversely affected by UV-B radiation in several ways. Research shows some of these ways are:

• Reduction in leaf area
• Decreased stem growth
• Inhibited photosynthesis
• DNA damage
• Change in the time of flowering
• Reduction in the number of flowers

Studies done on the most common agricultural species, such as rice, soybeans, winter wheat, cotton, and corn, indicate that overexposure to UV-B reduces their size, productivity, and quality. If this occurs, food insecurity or famine could result.

Agriculture is also negatively affected by the climate crisis. With global heating comes disruptions in plant flowerings. When insects aren’t present to pollinate crops that flower out of sync with insect life cycles, crop productivity plummets.

Furthermore, several chemicals known to deplete ozone, including CFCs and nitrous oxide, are potent greenhouse gases. In effect, agriculture, on which human civilization depends, is served a double whammy.

It is difficult to determine whether crop losses are directly due to global heating, or specifically due to ozone depletion. To ensure crop productivity and quality, the elimination of CFCs and nitrous oxide will help curb the climate crisis, and preserve the ozone layer as well as biodiversity.

Top 3 solutions for ozone layer depletion

There are numerous actions that governments, corporations, and private citizens can take to prevent ozone layer depletion. Here are the top 3 solutions to ozone layer depletion.

1. Use alternatives to ozone layer-depleting chemicals

Since CFCs, halons, and nitrous oxide are commonly used or produced in most countries, you can begin to reduce your dependence on them through research to assess all the ways these chemicals directly or indirectly affect your life today. Industry is searching for replacements (with less ozone depleting potential) and alternatives (with no effect on the ozone layer) all the time, so it’s necessary to stay informed.

Note: Products or services labeled “non-CFC” or “ozone layer-friendly” often contain chemicals that destroy the ozone layer to a lesser degree than CFCs. So, you may choose to opt out.

Here are some ways that you can limit your personal contribution to ozone layer depletion.

Air conditioning

Today, most coolants are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Once thought to be non-ozone layer depleting, they have been found to be ozone-damaging like their CFC cousins.

As a private citizen, you can eschew conventional air conditioning in your home and car (if you own one). Instead, rely on natural methods to stay cool. These include drinking cold water, taking cold showers, using ceiling fans or opening windows when it’s cooler outside, keeping windows shaded when it’s hot outside, or planting trees around your home.

If you work in an air-conditioned office, you can request that the thermostat be set at 82℉ or higher. Wear light, loose cotton clothing, and keep an iced beverage close by.

Fire extinguishers

Although production of halons is now banned, they are still used. A common replacement is hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). These do not deplete the ozone layer as much as CFCs, and they are powerful greenhouse gases. Some may have up to 14,000 times the warming potential of carbon dioxide. By their very nature, they are gases made to be released to the environment during firefighting.

Incidentally, carbon dioxide is an alternative material used in fire extinguishers. Investing in a home sprinkling system is an alternative way to protect yourself and your home in case of fire.

You may find fire extinguishers that use recycled halon. Contact the Halon Alternative Research Corporation (HARC) for more information. They may be able to help you recycle your used fire extinguisher (with residual halon still inside).

Polystyrene (Styrofoam)

Foam cups and containers, as well as household insulation, are usually made with CFC replacements today. Note that they have a reduced ozone layer depletion potential.

You could consider eco-friendly home insulation instead. As for cups and containers, try glass or metal.

2. Practice and consume food grown by regenerative (non-industrial) agriculture

If you’re not a farmer, the most effective thing you can do to avoid contributing to nitrous oxide emissions that head to the stratosphere (unlike those in smog that stay in the troposphere) is to stop supporting industrial agriculture. Choosing an all-organic diet, grown, by law, without synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, is key. Although organic fertilizers like mulch or compost contribute nitrous oxide, too, it’s not as bad compared to what synthetic fertilizers do. Since manure also contributes to nitrous oxide emissions, going vegan (no meat or dairy) is ideal.

Farmers who wish to reduce nitrous oxide emissions from their profession could transition to regenerative agriculture. With a focus on restoring soil health through minimal disturbance, indigenous knowledge, carbon sequestration, cover cropping, planned grazing, and enhanced biodiversity, regen ag holds promise as a way to safeguard the land for future generations.

You can get involved by supporting food products with regenerative organic certified labels. In 2023, as Congress writes the next Farm Bill, establishing policy for the next five years, sign the petition to give regen ag a prominent place in U.S. agriculture.

3. No flying

There has been speculation about creating a fleet of supersonic jets as recently as 2020. But, so far, it is considered cost prohibitive. The jets would dump nitrous oxide and water vapor (source of hydroxyl radicals, another catalyst) directly into the stratosphere. So, these jets would undoubtedly deplete the ozone layer.

Subsonic passenger planes produce nitrous oxide, but it likely stays in the troposphere where it creates the pollutant, ground level ozone. Nitrous oxide is a powerful greenhouse gas and contributes to the climate crisis. For this reason, abstaining from flying to reduce your personal carbon footprint is an important way to do so.

Key takeaways on ozone layer depletion

Without the ozone layer encircling the Earth 10-12 miles above it, life as we know it would not exist. In constant flux from the chemical reactions converting diatomic oxygen (O₂) to triatomic oxygen (O₃) and vice versa, the wispy belt just two pennies thick reflects harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation back into space.

Chlorine in chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), other halogens like bromine, and nitrous oxide interfere with the O₂-O₃ chemical equilibrium in the stratosphere as catalysts in a series of chain reactions. In fact, the catalysts, when bonded to oxygen radicals, effectively halt the process of net ozone formation. Lacking an ozone filter, harmful UV-B and UV-C rays travel to Earth unobstructed.

As if this wasn’t bad enough for life on Earth, CFCs are powerful greenhouse gases. As such, they contribute substantially to the climate crisis.

Today, increased release of nitrous oxide, another potent greenhouse gas, is causing significant disruption of the O₂-O₃ equilibrium in Earth’s stratosphere. Consequently, ozone layer depletion is still occurring. Nitrous oxide is formed during the manufacture and use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizer for industrial agriculture.

The effects of ozone layer depletion are nothing short of catastrophic. Increased cancer rates and cataracts in humans occur from UV-B exposure. Oceanic phytoplankton populations, responsible for most of the oxygen that humans breathe, plummet from UV-B exposure. Agricultural crops wither, leading to food insecurity and potentially famine.

Solutions to ozone layer depletion require system-changing adjustments to several industries supporting 21st century lifestyles in rich countries like the USA. The air conditioning sector must stop production and use of all CFCs and their chemical cousins in refrigerants. Agribusiness must stop manufacture and application of synthetic pesticides and fertilizer.

If you’re an individual striving to lead a sustainable lifestyle, you can help prevent ozone layer depletion by not relying on conventional air conditioning and agriculture. Transition to alternative ways to keep cool. Grow your own food organically or support farmers practicing regenerative agriculture.

Above all, demand that your governmental representatives take steps to write, enact, and enforce policies that require the air conditioning, refrigeration, and agricultural industries to follow ozone layer-friendly practices. Raise awareness of these problems through public protest. Encourage your friends and family to get involved.

It’s only when the necessary changes summarized here occur on all these levels that ozone layer depletion will permanently end, and the related climate crisis can be somewhat offset.